There are two forms: the past and the present subjunctive. Their use relates to mood rather than tense. Where the clause has a plural subject there is no difference between the indicative and subjunctive forms: I insist that we reconsider the council's decisions. BUT I insist that the council reconsider its decisions or I insist that the council's decisions be reconsidered. In the firs case it can be both indicative or subjunctive, but in the last two cases it is subjuntive.
In case of past subjunctive it is no matter what form the verb be takes on in indicative the past form will always be were. If he were leaving, you would have heard about it.
A passive subjunctive is a possibility for the mandative and the formulaic subjunctive as well. In case of the verb be, not may be placed before or after the verb. It is essential that this mission not fail.
THE MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE:
This is the most common use. Occurs in subordinate that clauses and consists of the base form of the verb. The present and past forms are indistinguishable: The commitee proposes(ed)(that) Mr Smith be elected. That clause with mandative subjunctive can be introduced by verbs suc as: decide, insist, move, order, prefer, request. Adjectives: advisable, desirable, fitting, imperative. Nouns: decision, decree, order, requirement, resolution. The mandative is more characteristic in AmE, where it is formal. BrE: The employees demanded that the manager should resign/resigns. In AmE: /resign.
THE FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE:
Like the latter it consists of the base form of the verb, but it is used in certain expressions chiefly in independent clauses. Come what may/God save the Queen/Suffice it to say/Heaven forbid that/ Be it notted that/Be that as it may..... (tegyünkúgy mintha).
Other uses of the present subjunctive:
In clauses of condition and concession: Even if that be the official view, it cannot be accepted.
Clauses of condition or negative purpose introduced by lest or for fear that.
The president must reject this proposal, lest it cause strife and violence.
The were subjunctive:
It is unreal in meaning, being used in adverbial clauses introduced by such conjunctions as: if, as if, as though, though, and in nominal clauses after verbs like wish and suppose. We only use were in these cases. Though in less formal style was is also permitted.:
If I were rich, I would buy you anything you wanted. I wish the journey were over. Just suppose everyone were to give up smoking and drinking. It is less usual nowadays.
17. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE: (the passive auxiliaries BE and GET)
Voice distinguishes an active verb phrase from a passive one. It makes possible to view the action of a sentence in two ways. The active passive relation involves two grammatical levels: the verb phrase and the clause.
The active-passive correspondence: Changing from active to passive involves rearangement of two clause elements: The active subject becomes the passive agent, and the active object becomes the passive subject. And the preposition BY can be introduced before the agent. John (active subj.) admired(active verb) Mary. Mary(passive subject) was admired(passive verb) by John(by phrase agent).
The passive auxiliaries BE and GET: The passive auxiliary is normaly BE. We may use GET but it normaly used in case in consructions without animate agent: The cat got run over by a bus. or James got beaten last night. But using it with animate agent is also possible: James got beaten by a gang.
This GET passive is avoided in formal style. The house is getting rebuilt. Sounds unfamiliar.
Even though we use GET in cases of copular sentences, ( I have to get dressed before 8 o'clock)
But these sentences mustn't be confused with passive sentences. These we also call PSEUDO- PASSIVES. GET puts the emphasis on the subject rather than the agent in both cases (copu. and passive). Get passive often reflects an unfavourable attitude towards the action: How did that window get opened.
Voice constraints: Where the active and passive sentences are not in systematic correspondence:
Five kinds of voice constraint: verb, object, agent, meaning, frequency of use.
Verb constraints: a/ active only: copular and intransitive verbs and the so called "middle verbs do not occur in some senses in passive: have, lack, The auditorium holds 5000 people, The dress becomes her, resemble, suit. But stative verbs of attitude can occur in the passive: He is wanted by the police.
In some cases only the passive is possible: John was said to be good teatcher. They said him to be a good teatcher (difference) .
Prepositional verbs. In passive they are normally verbal idioms. The enginneers went very carefully into the problem. becomes: The problem was carefully gone into by the engineers. (no sense with tunnel).
Object constraints: Transitive verbs can be followed by clausal or phrasal object. With clauses as objects the passive is restricted in use: Noun phrase as obj.: John loved Mary, Mary was loved by John. Clause as object: Finite clause: John thought that she was attractive. we dont say: That she was attractive was thought by Tom. In Nonfinite clause: infinite: John hoped to meet her. we dont say: To meet her was hoped by John. John enjoyed seeing her. we dont say Seeing her was enjoyed by Tom.
Constraints occur in case of reflexive, reciprocal and possessive pronouns. himself could be seen, each other could be seen, my hand was shaken by the man these are all wrong. And passive is not used for idioms in which the verb and the object form a close unit. The ship set sail and not Sail was set.
Agent constraints: In most cases the agent is missing when it is irrelevant or missing. The Prime Minister has often been criticized recently. or where the agent is left out as redundant. Jack fought Michael last night and Jack was beaten. So from the passive we cant conclude to the agent of the active in most cases.
Meaning constraints: The meaning may differ in act and pass. John cannot do it. where it expresses ability, and It cannot be done by John, where it expresses possibility. or Every schoolboy knows one joke at least, which means Every schoolboy knows at least some joke or other. and One joke at least is known by every schoolboy, which means that there is one particular joke that is known to every schoolboy. Difference in meaning has also been noted where both subject and object of the active sentence are generic: Beavers build dams and Dams are built by beavers. (universal interpretation in the first case which doesn't work in the second case).
Frequency constraints: Stylistic factor determines frequency to a great extent. (impersonal vs. personal style).
The passive gradient: The grade of how strong the passive is.
Central passive or true passive: The violin vas made by my father . and The conclusion is hardly justified by the results. These sentences have a direct active-passive relation, but the first has a personal, the second has a nonpersonal agent.
Semi passives: Both verbal and adjectival properties. a) coordinating the participle with an adjective.
b) modifying with quite rather more c)replacing BE by a lexical copular verb such as feel or seem
We feel rather encouraged and content.... Leonard seemed very interested in and keen on linguistics.
In such adjectival uses of the past participle, it is rare to have a by phrase expressing the agent, but sometimes they occur: I feel rather let down by his indiference. Prepositions however can introduce agent-like phrases. (about,at,over,to,with) We were all worried about the complication=The complication worried us all.
Pseudo passives: these have no active form and no possibility of agent addition: The building is already demolished. Their verb+ed participle recommends as passives. In terms of meaning they of course have an active equivalent. In 1972 the democrats were defeated. Has dynamic and stative meaning. They occur with current(be,feel,look) and resulting(get,become,grow) copular verbs.
18 TIME, TENSE, AND THE VERB I :
The present tense as nonpast: There are three interpretations for present, future and past:
1. On the referential level: time as a line, on which past and future defined as the one that is behind and the one that is ahead of the present. 2. On the semantic level present is general and unmarked.
3. On the grammatical level: English has no future form of the verb. Present is unmarked tense that expresses future. Present is called nonpast as well.
Situation types: Stative and dynamic verb senses: 1. happenings take place in time denoted by verbs. 2. Can be expressed by an abstract noun (singular or plural). A verb can have both stative and dynamic meaning. For instance BE,HAVE,KNOW are stative verbs, they refer to states. But I have driven a sports car for years has a dynamic rather than stative meaning, because it refers to events. Dybamic verbs often imply an active performer of the action. That is why they regulary occur in imperative, but statives not. Dynamic verbs occur in claft sentences following do. What she did was to learn Spanish . There are some verbs in the cases of which making distinction is rather hard.
Meanings of the simple present with reference to present time: 1. Stative present: used without reference to specific time. Includes timeless statements or eternal truths'. Honesty is the best policy.
Scientific statements. We use it even if we know that the time span of the state is restricted to a certain degree: Everyone likes her. 2. Habitual present: They usually imply an unrestricted time span, but in this case it refers to a repeated sequence of events: Bill drinks heavily. A frequency adverbial can be added to specify the repetition. The state present refers to something which obtains at the time of speaking, this is unusual of the habitual present. 3. Instantaneous present: Refers to a single action that begun and completed approximately at the moment of speech. Singular count nouns. The event little duration. These are used in restricted situations: commentaries, demonstrations, special exclamatory sentences(off we go), performatives. In cease of the last one the verb is often a verb of speaking(advise,predict)describing the speech act of which it is a part. Must be simultanity between the speech and what it describes.
Special nonpresent uses of the present tense: 1. Simple present referring to the past.:
There is the historic present that describes the past as if it is happening now. So it conveys some dramatic immediacy of an eye-witness account. There are the verbs of communication The ten o'clock news says... (understand, hear, learn) these refer to the end of the comm. process. In some cases the communication event took place in the past, its result is still operative. (Bible) The book of Genesis speaks of the terrible faith of Sodom and Gomorrah. Referring to writers, composers and their extant work. Also can be used for general artistic characterisation. S.Present referring to the future: it suggests that the event is unalterably fixed in advance. The plane leaves at eight o'clock tonight. We use it in dependent clauses, partic. in conditional and temporal clauses. He'll do it if you pay him. S. Present in fictional narrative: close connection with historic present but the events are imaginery. The use in stage directions. Mallinson enters.
19. TIME TENSE AND THE VERB II.
Meanings of the past tense with reference to past time: Past tense combines two features of meaning: The event/state must have taken place in the past with a gap between its completion and the present moment. I stayed in Africa for several months Which means that I am no longer there. The speaker must have in mind a definite time at which the event/state took place. (last week, in 1932, yesterday)
Situational use of the past tense: for immediate situation Did you lock the front door or in domestic situation, in general knowledge Byron died in Greece .
Anaphoric and cataphoric use of the past tense: We call its use anaphoric when the time in the past to which the reference is made is already indicated by a previous use of the past tense. Then we entered the city....the square was deserted. Or in case of preceding use of the present perfective in the indefinite past sense. They have decided to close down the factory. It took us completely by surprise. Or when an adverbial of time occurs in the same clause. Last Saturday we went to...
When the adverbial follows the past tense this may be called the cataphoric use of definite past. The relevant time need not be specified.
Event, state, and habit in the past: Event past: single definite event in the past. State past: refers to a state. Habitual past: sequence of events. The event past is more common than the corresponding instantaneous present. Habitual and statemeanings can be paraphrased by means of used to. In those days we used to live in the .... Another distinguishing feature is the tendency for dynamic verbs to have a sequential interpretation when they occur in textual sequence. She addressed and posted the letter.
Meanings of the past tense with reference to present and future: There are three special meanings: In indirect speech the past tense of the reporting verb tends to make the verb of the subordinate clause past tense as well. This is known as backshifting. Did you say you had no money.
Yes I am completely broke. A different kind of backshift is observed when a sentence describing a speech or thought in the future contains a reported speech clause referring retrospectively to the present. My wife will be sorry that she missed seeing you this evening. The attitudinal past is used with verbs expressing mental state, reflects the tantative attitude of the speaker, rather than the past time. Did you want to see me now. The hypothetical past is used in certain subordinate clauses, especially in if clauses. If you really worked hard, you would soon get promoted. Expresses what is contrary to the belief or expectation of the speaker.
20. PERFECTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS I: Aspect refers to a gramm. category which reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time. Not relative to the time of utterance.
Perfective aspect: In simple past the event has come to a close whereas the perfective indicates that the event is still in progress. Present perfective signifies past time with current relevance. The perfective indicates anterior time, which is (time preceding whatever time orientation is signalled by tense or by other elements of the sentence or its content.)(előidejű) Within this zone the action of the verb takes place. In case of present perfective, the time of orientation is not fixed(I have already met your sister) . In case of past perfective T2 is a specifiable secondary time of orientation in the past. In conditionals (3rd) the past tense indicates a hypothetical event. If you had listened to me.
The usage of past in future may occur in sentences like By next week they will have completed the work. Here the infinitive perfective occurs after a modal auxiliary and the time orientation derives not from the infinitive itself, but from the modal. The inf. perf. is in a nonfinite verb phrase which takes its time orientation from the main verb.
The present perfective: The present perfective differs from the simple past in relating a past event to a present time orientation. In cases where both simple past and present perfective can be used it is felt that they are not interchangeable. Present perfective relates the action more directly to the present time. Where did you put my purse. Where have you put my purse. In first case the speaker asks somebody to remember a past action while in the second case he asks his purse's whereabouts.
The simple present perfective has three meanings: State leading up to the present. That house has been empty for ages. Indefinite events in a period leading up to the present: Have you ever been to Florence. The past time in question is indefinite. Habit in a period leading up to the present. Mr Terry has sung in this choir ever since he was a boy.
Variants of the indefinite past meaning: There are three implications for present perfective :
The relevant time zone leads up to the present/ The event is recent/ The result of the action still obtains in the present time. The choice between the simp. past and the present perfect depends on wether the speaker has in mind an implicit or an explicit time zone. The present perfective is often used to report a piece of news. The president has resigned.
In case of dynamic conclusive verbs ( these imply the accomplishment of change of state)
The apples have all been eaten. The resultative and recency connotations can occur with time adverbials( recently and just) or( already and yet). The plane has just landed. Relationship adverbials(already,yet) can occur with both resultative and stative aspect.
The use of adverbials with the simple past and the present perfective: There are adverbials associated with the past tense: yesterday, a week ago, earlier this week, last Monday, the other day, at four, in the morning. Adverbials associated with the present perfect: up to now, since, so far, hitherto. Adv. associated with both: today, this month, recently, before, once, already.
The past perfective: Has the meaning of past in the past. The past perfective is to denote any event or state anterior to a time of orientation in the past. There are state event or habit meanings. In a clause introduced by AFTER past perfective is interchangeable with simple past: I ate my lunch after Sandra had come back from her shopping. It is also good with CAME. Adverbials of time position ca identify eighter T2 or T3 (then and before then) When the police arrived the thieves had run avay. But its better to say: The thieves had run away when the police arrived.
21. PERFECTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS II.
Progressive aspect: Indicates a happening in progress at a given time. . sings well and singing well. In PAST cases: Simple past: we see the event as a whole. In past progressive: we see it as an activity in progress. The meaning of the progressive : the happening has duration(distinctive for single events), the happening has limited duration(distinctive for states and habits), the happening is not necessarily complete(distinctive on the case of certain dynamic verb meanings. The first two suggests that the action is temporary. The progressive makes us see the event enduring over a period, rather than as happening all at once. Joan is singing well (shrinks the duration) Joan was singing well(lengthens the duration of the event) . I was reading a novel yesterday(no complition).
State, event, and habit with the progressive: State progressive: In many cases progressive is unacceptable with stative verbs. We own a house and not we are owning a house. And where it occurs it is felt to imply temporarynes: We are living in the country. Event progressive: conveys the idea that the event has duration, and has not yet come to an end. Blows his whistle and Blowing his whistle. The first is a brief blast and the second is a continous blowing. The Present prog. is a more common way of referring to a present event. Habitual progressive: habitual meaning and implies that the repetition takes place over a limited period. The professor is typing his own letters while his sec. is ill. Sometimes it combines with habitual meaning to suggest that every event in the sequence has duration. Whenever I see her she is working in the garden.
Situation types: Qualities: relatively permanent and inalienable (be tall). States are less permanent: (be angry) These statives and qualities do not occur in progressive. If yes than they contain a dynamic predication. Peter is being awkward. The progressive has a special effect sometimes. They are friendly and They are being friendly. In the second case it is a form of behaviour.
Private states: Intellectual states: know,believe,think,wonder,suppose. I understand that the offer..... States of emmotion: intend,wish,want,like. She likes to entertain the.. These can occur in progressive when the temporariness is emphasized. What were you wanting. I was hoping you would.. States of perception: see,hear,feel. States of bodily sensation: hurt, ache. My back aches or aching (interchangeable.
Verbs of perception: Perceiver at Subject position: I can see the house. Percept at subject pos: The house looks empty. Usage of can, could to express the state of perception. Simple pr. without modal would make the event seen as a whole. I heard the bell ring but I could hear the bells ringing. is a perception continuing over a period. In present it would be unusual. Instead of seeing and hearing we use looking at and listening to. But in certain circumstances for inst. hearing could occur: Commentator in Sky center: John ! We are not hearing you! (-:
Other states of being and having: They are the main stative verbs and can paraphrase other stative verbs. We agree with you and We are in agreement with you. There are other stative verbs which can be paraphrased in the same way. They are also called verbs of being and having. holds=has a capacity of or doesn't matter=is not important.
Type C: stance: Class of verbs such as live,stand,sit and lie. They are particular because they can be used with the nonprogressive to express a permanent state or with the progressive to express a temporary state. James lives in...(perm.) James is living in...(temp.) Similar with the perfective: I have sat here...and I have been sitting here...
Dynamic types D-K: There are 8 types according to three binary opposition. 1. Durative/punctual: happening capable of duration. 2. Conclusive/non-conclusive contrast: result in state or not in conclusive. 3. Agentive/non-agentive:When the subject refers to an agent. DO can substitute for an agentive situation type.
Durative situation types: D. goings-on. These are activities carried out by inanimate forces. It is raining. E. activities. Expressed by intransitive verbs with animate subjects: Jill was singing/working. F. processes:Denote a change of state taking place over a period. The weather is getting warmer.
G. accomplishments: denote an action which takes place over a period and has a goal or endpoint.
Jill is knitting herself a sweater.
Punctual situation types: H and I. momentary events and acts: H is nonagentive. Nod, fire, jump.
J and K. transitional events and acts: They have little or no duration and involve a consequent change of state. The train is arriving at platform four. TÁBLÁZAT
22. PERFECTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS III.
Progressive aspect in relation to tense: It has the effect of surrounding a particular event or point of time with a temporal frame. a point in the flow of time from where the event is seen to stretch to the future and past. When the eight o'clock news comes on, I am already travelling to work. The temporal frame can be implied by reference to a past time of orientation. A moment later, we were hurrying for shelter beneath the trees. The relationship betwe a past progressive and simple past is of time inclusion: made coffee, was making coffee when we arrived. The temporal frame is notimportant.
Other uses of the progressive aspect: May be used to refer to future or future in the past. Are you going to the meeting. They were getting married the following spring. May be used with attitudinal past tense or present: I am hoping to borrow some money. or I was wondering if you could....
Or can be used following the auxiliary WILL or SHALL that suggests that the matter will defenately take place. I'll be seeing you next week.
Perfective progressive: when perf. and progr. are combined (has been working) their other features also combine. Progressive has three features: DURATION, LIMITATION OF DURATION, and POSSIBLE INCOMPETENESS. The firs two gives the perfective progressive a sense of temporariness. I have been writing a letter to... This is a temporary situation leading up to the present. A state leading up to the present is simple perfect. The limitation of duration is weak in the case of LIVE,STAND,LIE. The use of punctual verbs is in most cases unacceptable with perfective progressive. He has been starting the book. which is wrong because it has no duration to start a book. The incompleteness feature becomes clear in the next two sent.: I have cleaned/have been cleaning the window. The use of simple perfective is wrong with accomplishment verbs when the clause contains an adverbial of duration. So ve say They have been repairing the road for months. But where the duration adverbial refers to the resultant state or where the clause is negative we may say: They havent repaired the roads for years. If a conclusive verb is not accompanied by a verb of duration it implies that the effects of the happening are still visible. You have been fighting again
The main uses of perfective progr. are as follows: The happening has limited duration/continues up to the present/need not be complete/may have effects which are still apparent.
We use present perf. progr. when temporay habit up to the present. Implies that it may continue into the future. The meaning of the perfective progr. may combine with those of the past tense and of the modal verbs.
23 SOME MEANS OF EXPESSING FUTURE TIME:
Will/Shall + infinitive: This is the most common way of expressing future. The modal verb will is used with subjects of all three persons. Shall is used to indicate futurity but only with a first person subject:
No doubt I shall see you next week. The use of will can be in predictive aspect: You'll feel better if..
Will and shall especially in first and second person expresses intention: How soon will you anounce that.
Be going to + infinitive: Especially in informal speech. Its general meaning is future fulfillment of the present intention. It is used with personal subjects and agentive verbs: When are you going to get married. The other meaning is future result of present cause is used with both personal and nonpersonal subjects: It's going to rain. Going to is not normaly used in conditional or in superordinate clause.
Present progressive: Future arising from present arrangement, plan or programme: I am taking the children to the zoo.( on Monday). We do not use certain stative verbs in progressive such as BE.
The present p. suggests that the future happening is imminent(közelgő): I am leaving
Simple present: Another common use of future meaning. Mostly in dependent clauses, where it is regularly used after conditional and temporal conjunctions such as if and when and in some that cclauses. What will you say if I marry the boss. In main clauses, the future use the simple present may be said to represent a marked future of unusual definiteness. Can be used for statements about the calendar:School finishes on the 21st of March. Also describes immutable events: When is high tide. It is used with dynamic transitional verbs: arrive,come,leave. Having the meaning of plan or programme: The plane takes off at 20:30 tonight.
Will/Shall + progressive infinitive: Reference to the future time with temporal frame. When you reach the end of the bridge I'll be waiting there to show you the way. There is a separate use of WILL + progressive to denote future as a matter of course: We'll be flying at 30000 feet. but We'll fly at 30000 feet means that the pilot decided so. Can be a more polite way do express demand. We can use both prograssive and nonprogressive in cases where there is no human involvement: The next train to London will arrive/be arriving at platform four.
Concluding comments on constructions expressing future time: There are othe quasi-auxiliary constructions (be to + infinitive or be about to + infinitive. Their daughter is to be married soon .(future arrangement or plan) The train is about to leave .(expresses near future). We may add JUST to strenghten its closeness. May or must with a dynamic verb can locate the event in future. The weather may improve. Or with be sure, be bound to. Will is usually preferred to be going to in formal style. Be going to tends not to be repeated in a text referring pervasively to the future.Tomorrow is going to be a cold day. There will be snow....
Future time in past: Most future constructions can be used in the past tense to describe something which is in the future when seen from viewpoint in the past. 1. Modal verb construction with would. It is rare literary narrative style: The time was not far off when he would regret this decision. Be going to + infinitive: (with a sense of unfulfilled intention) You were going to give me your address.
Past progressive: (arrangement predetermined in the past) I was meeting him in Bordeaux nex day.
Be to + infinitive: (formal) be destined to or arrangement: He was to eventually end up there. and
He was to leave.. Be about to + infinitive:(often with the sense of unfulfilled intention) He was about to hit me.
24 MEANINGS OF THE MODAL VERBS I :
Modality is the manner in which the meaning of a clause is qualified so as to reflect the speakers judgement of the likeelihood of the proposition it expresses being true. There are constraining factors of meaning which can be divided into two types: 1. Those such as permission, obligation, and volition which involve some kind of intristic human control over events. 2. Those such as possibility , necessity, and prediction, which do not primarily involve human control of events but judgement of what is or is not likely to happen. 1: INTRINSIC 2: EXTRINSIC uses of modal verbs. Each one of the modals has both the intrinsic and the extrinsic uses: May has the meaning of permission(intrinsic) and possibility(extrinsic) For inst. SHOULD and WOULD is interchangeable in the meaning obligation and tentative inference.
1. Certain modals such as CAN and WILL are extremely common, but others such as should and ought to are rare. 2. Most of them have the past form as well, but in terms of meaning, their past form does not always stand for the past.(can/could) 3. Their use differ in BrE and AmE. For inst. the use of those above mentioned rare modals are rarer in AmE.
Can/could: Three major meaning of the modals can be distinguished. 1. Possibility: mostly in questions and negatives: Even expert drivers can make mistakes. In this case CAN is paraphrasable by IT IS POSSIBLE followed by an infinitive clause. Sometimes can indicates a future possibility.
2. Ability: Can you remember. Can be paraphrased by BE ABLE TO or BE CAPABLE OF. or be possible for me to... can/could is due to some skill or capability on the part of the subject referent.
3. Permission: In these cases can is less formal than may. Can we borrow or Are we allowed to borrow.
May/might: 1. Possibility: You may be right. It is different from the possibility sense of CAN. To paraphrase we use IT IS POSSIBLE followed by a that clause or we simply use (it may be that or perhaps) This meaning of MAY is termed Epistemic Possibility: it denotes the possibility of a given proposition's being or becoming true. Might can be used as an alternetive to may. Might is more tentative. It is often preferred to may as a modal of epistemic possibility. When may/might is used in the same possibility sense as can/could than it is a sense of Root possibility: During the autumn, many rare birds may be observed. Here may is a more formal substitute for can. 2. Permission:
You may borrow my bicycle. As a permission auxiliary may is more formal and less common than can.
May is associated with permission given by the speaker.
In interogatives and in auxiliary negation may in the sense of epistemic possibility is normally replaced by can. She may not be serious/She cant be serious. There are rare use of may with subject -operator inversion in volitional sentences. May the best man win=Let the best man win.
In subordinate clauses of concession or purpose:Strange as it may seem. (this is formal and has an archaic sense. Use of may in concessive adverbial clauses: We may have our differences from time to time, but we trust eachother. Idiomatic expression may/might as well. is to make reluctant or sardonic(erőltetett) recommendation: You may as well stay here.
25. MEANINGS OF THE MODAL VERBS II
Must : Can express necessity: There must be some mistake. The speaker judges the proposition to be necessarily true. The speaker drawn conclusions from things already known. There is also a root necessity meaning of must: To be healthy, a plant must receive moisture and sunshine. where must has a meaning of essentiality. Obligation or complusion: You must be back by ten o'clock. The speaker is advocating a certain form of behaviour. The speaker is exercising his authority. Exception when the subject is in first person. I must remember to write. The speaker in this case exercises authority over himself. Ocassionaly must occurs with negations. His absence must not have been noticed. The occurence is rare in questions. Must there be a good reason for.... This assumes a positive answer. Some case MUST has sarcastic use with a 2nd person subject: If you must smoke, at least....
Need, have(got) to: Need is used as the negative and question form of must in root senses: Need they make all that noise. Have(got) to can also be substituted for must with little or no difference in meaning. In the case of logical necessity have(got) to is more emphatic than must and used mostly in AmE. In the obligation sense have(got) to is felt more impersonal than must. It is noticable with a firs person subject: I'm afraid I have to go now. Where must implies self obligation, have(got) to implies obligation by external forces. Since must has no past and nonfinite form, have to in many contexts where must is impossible.(when following a modal verb: We'll have to be patient.)
Ought to and should: Where they contrast with must and have to is that they are not expressing the speakers confidence in the occurance of the event or state described. There is tentative interference where the speaker is not sure about that his statement is true but tentatively concludes that it is true on the basis that he knows. Should and ought to differ from must in that they frequently refer to the future. The job should be finished by next Monday.
Obligation: Ought and should do not imply that the speaker has confidence that the recommendation will be carried out. In the perfective aspect they have the meaning that the recommendation has not been carried out. They should have met her at the station.
Will/would: Where shall end should is not interchangeable with will and would the contraction( 'll 'd) does not substitute for shall and should though it can for will and would. When in the predictive sense the change to shall is not possible then the contraction to 'll is possible.
Prediction: There are three related uses: 1. The common future predictive sense of will and the prediction in the past sense of would: I was told I would feel better after this medicine. 2. The present predictive sense of will which is rare and is similar in meaning to must in logical necessity sense: She will have had her dinner by now. 3. The habitual predictive meaning often occurs in conditionals:
If you eat salty you will get thirsty. Or it occurs in descriptions of personal habit or behaviour.
He'll talk for hours if you let him. In past tense narratives would can describe habitual behaviour:
In the spring the birds would return to their old haunts.
Volition: 1. Intention: I will write as soon as I can. 2. Willingness: Will you help me to..
3. Insistence: If you will go out without your overcoat, what can you expect.
26. MEANINGS OF MODAL VERBS III.
Shall: It is becoming rarer and rarer. 1. We use it for prediction with first person subject. Shall is substitute for the future use of will in formal style. In old english the future auxiliary with WE and I should be should, but its old fashioned. 2. Volition: With first person subjects. In the intentional sense shall is a formal alternative to will after I or we. In questions containing shall I SHALL consults the wishes of the addresse thus moves towards an obligational meaning. It is used for making offers: Shall we deliver the goods to your home. And we use it to make suggestions about shared activities.
What shall we do this evening. Shall we go to... Also used in tag questions. Its use is restricted with 2nd and third person subjects. It can have the meaning of must in case of obligations.
The past tense forms of the modals: could, might, wold and should:
Past time in indirect speech: In indirect speech the past time modals are used. They can express
permission,ability,possibility,prediction,volition, can be used in offers.
Past time in other constructions: Can and could act as the past equivalent of can and will. But might and should do not act as the past equivalent of may and shall. Can-Could: permission We could do whatever we wanted, possibility Could be dangerous, ability Could speak language. Will-Would: prediction Later he would learn his error.,habitual prediction She would sit there continously.,willingness No one would do that. insistence He would leave the house in a muddle.
Outside indirect speech would is not used in the same sense of intention. There is a rare and archaic use of might outside indirect speech in the sense permitted to We might leave the school only at weekends. Could and would may refer to habitual fulfilment. In implying fulfilment was able to is used and not could. I ran after the bus and was able to catch it.
Hypothetical meaning: Past tense modals can be used in the hypothetical or unreal sense of the past tense. If you could win the game you might ..... refers for future but for past hypothetical we must add perfective aspect. All past tense modals can be used in this way to express the hypothetical version of meanings such as ability, possibility, permission, prediction, and volition. Could and might + perfective are used in complaints: You could have warned me she was coming.
Tentativeness or politeness: could might and would: Tentative permission in polite requests:
Could I see your driving licence. Tentative volition in polite requ.: Would you lend.. Tentative possibility in expressing tentative opinion: There could be something wrong. and in polite directives and requests: Could you please open the door. Apart from the last could and might have the same meaning.
Mood markers: Would and should: Used as a marker of mood. A marker of hypothetical meaning:
If you press that button, the engine would stop. There are other cases: I would hate to loose this pen.
Should as a marker of putative meaning: (vélt): In this use should + infinitive is often equivalent to the mandative subjunctive. She insisted that we should stay .
The modals with the perfective and progressive aspects: These are excluded when the modals express ability or permission or when shall or will expresses volition. These aspects are used :
Possibility: He might have missed the.. Necessity: You must be dreaming. Prediction: He will still be reading. Obligation can only be expressed with the perfective or progressive when combined with should or ought to. I ought to be working now. This implies nonfulfilment. Perfective progressive with modals is also possible: You must have been dreaming.
The meaning of marginal auxiliaries: Táblázat.
27 NEGATION
There are three types: 1. Clause negation where the whole clause is treated as negative. 2. Local negation where one constituent is negated. 3. Predication negation: only after certain auxiliaries in which the predication is negated.
Clause negation: Through verb negation. A simple positive sentence is negated by placing the clause negator NOT between the operator and the predication. The operator here is the firs auxiliary verb of a complex verb phrase or either BE or stative HAVE as the verb in a simple verb phrase.
If an operator is not present in the positive sentence the dummy auxiliary DO is introduced. Negation except in formal E. may occur with the contracted form n't. If we emphasize we use the whole negator.
The dynamic main verb have requires DO as an operator. We didn't have a party. If the verb is subjunctive, the negator is positioned immediately before the verb but without an operator: I requested that they not interrupt me.
Contracted forms of negator and auxiliaries: There is a negator and an auxiliary contraction:
We aren't ready, We're not ready.
Syntactic features of clause negation: These differentiate negative from positive clauses:
1. They are followed by positive checking tag questions. She doesn't work hard, does she.
2. They are followed by negative tag clauses with additive meaning: I havent finished, nor have you.
3. In discourse, they are followed by negative agreement responses. 4. They are followed by nonassertive items: He wont notice any change in you. She wont either. 5. They do not coocure with items that have positive orientation. It isn't pretty late. which is wrong.
Clause negation other than through verb negation: Words negative in form and meaning.
Clausal negation : we negate a clause element other than the verb with no or not, or by using a negative word such as none or never. There is verb negation That was not an accident. and negation of other element: That was no accident If the negated subject is not generic there is no corresponding negation with the operator. Not one guest arrived late. Where negation with an operator is also possible, it has a different meaning because the scope of negation is different.
Many people did not come and Not many people came In formal style the negative element may be moved out into an initial position: Not a word would he say. This is a clausal negation. This requires the positive tag question an nonassertive. Negation with no can have different implications than verb negation with not. He is not a teacher and He is no teacher. The determiner no converts the usually nongradable noun into a gradable noun that characterizes a person I am not a youngster and I am no youngster( I am quite old) In most cases the verb no modifies adjectives only when they are comparatives (no worse) There is no inversion with negative conjuncts and disjunts.
Words negative in meaning but not in form: They are seldom, rarely, scarely,hardly etc.
These can effect clause negation, and require positive tag question. The adverbs normally cause subject-operator inversion when they are positioned initially as adverbials or as modifiers within an adverbial in literary an oratorical style. Rarely does cryme pay so well as many people think.
The adverbs scarely barely hardly function within a noun phrase subject, effecting clause negation.
Scarely any wine has yet arrived, has it. When ONLY focuses on a subject noun phrase the latter is followed by nonassertive items. Only two of us had any experience in sailing. But it may take subject operator inversion when it focuses on a fronted initial element other than the subject. Only his mother will he obey. Verbs adjectives and prepositions with nehative meaning may be followed by nonassertive items (ANY ) : I forgot to ask for any change. Nonassertive items also follow implied negation: Take it before he says anything. RARELY can be positive. (Rarely crime pays well)
28 THE VERB PHRASE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:
Tenses, aspects and modal auxiliaries apply both subordinate and independent clauses. But there are cases in which choices affecting the verb phrase of a subordinate clause. With temporal since clauses it is the choice of verb phrase in the matrix clause that is affected. Subordinate clause prevents that clause from constituting in an independent sentence.
The present tense adverbial and nominal clauses: The simple present is commonly used in preference to the auxiliary will or shall in certain types of adverbial clauses to express future meaning:
When he arrives the band will play the National Anthem. The subordinators belong to the temporal, conditional, and conditional connessive categories. SINCE is excluded. Clauses of similarity and proportion can also have the simple pres. to express future meaning. Next time I'll do as she says.
Nominal that and wh-clauses contain simple pres. when the matrix clause refers to the future. That is what he will want tomorrow. There are exceptions after which the simple present is regularly used: hope, bet see, take care, suppose and assume. Suppose he loses his way. Will and won't can occur in adverbial, if clauses. The simple present refers to an assumed future actual situation. Modals refer to the assumed predictability of a situation. Will and wont are commonly used 1. where modals have volitional meaning: If you'll use it, you can have it. Here simple present would suppress the volitional meaning. 2. Where the modals express timeless and habitual prediction: If drugs will cure him, this drug will do the job. 3. Modals express the present predictability of the occurence or nonoccurence of a future situation: If you wont arrive before six, I cant meet you. Matrix clause expresses the present consequence of the present predictability. Modals can be replaced by the simple present but with a different implication.
The hypothetical past and the past perfective: The verbs in hypothetical clauses are backshifted,
the past tense form form being used for present and future time reference and the past perf. for past time reference. Hypothetical past and perfective. The most commonly used modal in the matrix clause is WOULD. It expresses the hypothetical implication. The hypothetical meaning is more absolute in the past with present and future reference the meaning can be negative expectation or assumption. Modals in hypothetical conditional clauses combine with past and past perf. In the matrix clause they raplace WOULD. Modals in hypo. conditions apart from the hyp. would are could, would, might should. If they would help us we could finish early. In certain other constructions that have hypo. meaning hypo. past or past perf. are obligatory. It's time you were in bed. Can express negative implication or hypo. past may express tentative politeness.I'd rather we had dinner now.
The present and past subjunctive: Used very occasionally in formal style, open conditional clauses, and in concessive clauses. If any person be found guilty, he shall have the right of appeal. More usually the simple pres. indicative is used. Clauses of concession and purpose express putative rather than factual meaning: Though he be the president himself, he shall hear us. More usual for the though clause are the simple pres. indicative or putaive should followed by the infinitive. In that clauses after verbs, adjectives, the present subjunctive is used. Congress has voted that the present law be maintained. Mandative subjunctive is used when the matrix verb is past. Putative SHOULD with the infinitive is far more common. The past subjunctive is used in formal style in hypo. conditional clauses and in other constructions with hypo. meaning. I wish she were not married. In formal style we use WERE.
Putative should: Used in that clauses to convey the notion of a putative situation which is recognized as possibly existing or coming into existence. Nonfactuality. The should construction has nonfactual bias. In that clauses when the matrix contain verbs adjectives or nouns that convey an emotional reaction or that express a necessity, plan, or intention for the future we use putative SHOULD. It is replaceable by infinitive clauses or present subjunctive. A past verb in the matrix clause do not necessarily affect the form of should in the subordinate clause.
The perfective with temporal clauses: With temporal since clauses: The temporal since clause generally requires the present perf. in the matrix clause when we refer to the stretch of time up to the present.: I have lost ten ponds since I started swimming. When the clause contains a prepositional phrase introduced by since or the prepositional adverb since. In informal lang. nonperfective forms are commonly used in matrix clauses with since clauses. There are some exceptions to the general rule for matrix clauses. In most cases both perf and nonperf forms are possible.
1. When the predication is durative statively used verbs (be,seem) may take nonperf forms. It's Ok since I had it fixed. The most common pattern is IT+BE+ a time expression in which the verb is in simpl past, or simpl. pres. or have the will future. Nonperfective forms are normal here. Other verbs (seem) also fit into this pattern. It seems a long time since we last met. Perfective forms may also be used. 2. Modal auxiliaries (can,could) or semi-aux. occur in the matrix clause in nonperfective forms. Modals can not be used here in perfective forms. Perfective modals may be used when the matrix clause refers to a situation in the past. 3. The simple present or the pres. progr. is sometimes used in the matrix clause when that clause has habitual reference. When the whole period under consideration is distanced in past time, the past. perf. is generally used in the matrix clause. The past perfective may be replaced py the simple past. A past modal perfective is used in the matrix clause when the period in time matrix clause refers to a future time in the past. Since clause: Simple past is used when the clause refers to a point of time, marking the begining of a situation, referred to in the matrix clause. Present perfective is used when the clause refers to a period of time lasting to the present. Pres. perf. may also be used in the pattern it+be+time expression, when there is no explicit indication of point of time. When the period is placed in past time the past perf. or the simple past is used.
The perfective with other temporal clauses: When an after clause refers to a past event the varb may be in the past perf. or in simple past. In case of when it is the same. WHEN suggests that one action follows immediately the other. If the sequence of events is habitual the werb in aft or when clause may be in the pres. perf. Also when there is a repetitiveness of the situation and in temporal and conditional clauses for a future event that precedes the future event referred to in the matrix clause. In case of before we use past perf. Nonfactual. The event in a before clause may not have taken place.
29. REPORTING THE LANGUAGE OF OTHERS:
The clearest modes in which language may be reported are introduced by a reporting clause. 1. Referring to the speaker and the act of communication. 2. And can refer to the person spoken to. 3. The manner of speaking. 4. The circumstances of the act.
1. Primary modes of reporting: direct and indirect speech when a reporting clause introduces the report. (refers to the utterance itself) 2. Secondary modes related to the prim. modes of reporting are free indirect speech and direct speech. In sec. modes there is no reporting clause, the act of communication is signalled by shifts in the tense form of verbs. 3. The report can be representation of mental act. (internal communication) which is unspoken. Should I tell them now I thought to myself.
Ditrect speech: Gives the exact words of sy. They are enclosed in quotation marks. The medial position of reporting clause is frequent. Subject verb inversionmay occur if the verb is in the simp. present or in the simp. past. Inversion is most common when the verb is SAID. The subject of a reporting clause should not be pronoun. It sounds archaic. D. S. may extend over many sentence. The rep. clause in this case is in the first sentence. Reported clauses are omitted in fiction writing when the identity of the speaker is obvious, or in playsn in formal reports.
The structural relation between the reporting and direct speech: 1. Direct speech responses to a what question. 2. We can make it the subject complement in pseudo-cleft constructions. 3.The reporting clause is is an obligatory part of the firs clause in that coordination would otherwise not be possible. 4. Reporting clause as subordinate function as an adverbial. Can be positioned variously and can be omitted. 5. The direct speech clause behaves like a main clause in that it can for example be a question or a directive. The reporting clause behaves likewise. 6. Subject and verb are separated from the object by a comma. Gradient: How much is the direct speech inegrated into the structure. Extreme: direct speech without a reporting clause. 7. Reportng verbs with say: add, admit, announce, explain. The ones indicating the manner of speaking: murmur, mutter.
Indirect speech: Conveys the words of a subsequent reporter, what has been said before. These form a that clause. Reporting verbs that are used with indirect speech include those that are frequently used with direct speech. Verbs of speaking and thinking. A reporter usin indirect speech may summarize. Changes in wording becouse of the situation. Tense form of the verb, time references, place references, personal pronouns, demonstratives.
Backshift in indirect speech: The reporting verb may be in the present tense for communications for recent past time. The present tense is also used for report attributed to famous works or authors, which have present validity. The choice of verb form in the reported clause depends on the time reference of the verb. Verbs of cognition may also be used in the present tense. When the time reference is of the original utterance no longer applies at the time that the uttereance is reported it is often necessary to change the tense forms of the verbs. Such a change of verb forms in indirect speech is named backshift. The resulting relationship of verb forms in the reporting and reported clauses is known as the sequence of tenses. Present-past, Past-past or past perfective, Present perfective and past perfective-past perfective. Backshift is optional when the time reference of the original utterance is valid at the time of the reported utterance. The appropriateness of the present forms depends on their reference at the time of the reported utterance. If a long time had elapsed between the original utterance reported or there was doubt as to as to its present validity, the past perfective would be used. Backshift is normal if the proposition in the indirect speech is considered to be false.
30. REPORTING THE LANGUAGE OF OTHERS:
If the identity of the speaker and the person addressed are not the same as in the situation of the original utterance, the personal pronouns need to be changed. Pronoun shift requires the shift of 1st and 2nd person pronouns to 3rd person pronouns or to nouns, when the person referred to in the original utterance are absent in the reported utterance. 1st an 2nd person pronouns are used as appropriate to the reporting situation. If the relation between the the original and the reported utterance has changed it is necessary to make adjustments. Place references change or be cpecified by name. If the relative distancing has changed, the demonstratives also change.
Indirect statements, questions, exclamations, and directives: Indirect statement: that clause,
indirect question: dependent wh-clause, indirect exclamations: dependent wh-clause. indirect directives: that clause and to-infinitive clause. With directives there is no tense backshift in the verb forms: mandative, subjunctive, putative should and to-infinitive. If to-infinitive construction is used for an indirect directive, the reporting clause normaly requires an indirect object or a prepositional object.
The subjunctive an modal auxiliaries in indirect speech: There is no indirect speech construction for the optative subjunctive, but when it is used to express a wish the construction with may is sometimes a near equivalent. There is no backshift for the mandative subjunctive. The past subjunctive or hypoth. past is backshifted to hypothetical past perfective if there is a change in time reference. Backshift is optionall if the proposition in the indirect speech is still valid. If there is a change in time reference, a modal auxiliary is backshifted from present tense forms to past tense forms. If a modal auxiliary in the direct speech. is already in the past tense form, then the same form remains in the indirect speech. Several modal auxiliaries or marginal modals have only one form (must). This form remains in indirect speech. But in this case it can be replaced by had to. If the proposition in the indirect speech is valid at the time of utterance the backshift is optional.
Free indirect and direct speech: Used to report speech or the stream of thought. The reporting clause is omitted. The potantialities of direct speech sentence structure are retained. It is only the backshift of the verb, with equivalent shifts in personal pronouns, and time and place referencesthat signals the fact thjat the words are being reported. In the case of free direct speech it is used in fiction writing to represent a persons stream of thought. It is a form of direct speech but it is merged with the narration without any overt indication by a reporting clause of a switch to speech. Its distinguished form is the past time reference of the narration by its use of present tense forms.
Transferred negation: It is the transfer of the negative form a subordinate clause where semantically it belongs to the matrix clause. I dont think its a good idea can have two meanings: negation applies to the matrix or to the subordinate clause. The matrix verbs that allow transfered negation fall into several semantic groups: Opinion(anticipate, Perception(appear), Intuition may differ whether 2 sentences are synonymous. Lack of synonymy becomes evident if the adjective is intensified. Not all verbs in the same semantic field allow transfered negation(assume). Addition of modal auxiliaries in the matrix clause may prevent transfered negation with verbs that otherwise allow it.
31. COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS I
Multi word verbs: Phrasal verb, prepositional verb, ph.-prepositional verb. Only considered multy word verbs where they behave as single unit. Verb is a unit which behave either lexicaly or syntactically. Particle is what follows the verb. Prepositions: against, among,as... Either prepositions or spatial verbs: about, above, across. Spatials only: aback, ahead.. The most obvious difference between the prepositions and the spatial adverbs is that where prepositions require a following noun phrase as a prepositional complement, there is no such requirement for adverbs.
Types: 1. Intransitive phrasal verbs. Intransitive phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle. These are usually informal. The particle functions like a prediction adjunct and usually cannot be separated from its lexical verb. In phrasal verbs the meaning of the combination manifestly cannot be predicted from the meanings of verb and particle in isolation, but in free combinations the verb acts as a normal intransitive verb, and the adverb has its own meaning. The separability of verb and adverb in terms of meaning is shown by possible substitutions. There are also syntactic signs of cohesion. In free combinations it is often possible to place a modifying adverb (right) between the adverb particle and the verb. This insertion is to differing extents unacceptable with phrasal verbs. Another sign of free combination is the possibility of placing the adverb before the verb with subject-verb inversion. (Out came the sun). But with phrasal verbs it is not possible. Where the phrasal verb makes metaphorical use of spatial adverbs inversion seems acceptable.
Type 2: Many phrasal verbs may take a direct object an can be described as transitive. With most type2 phrasal verbs the particle can either precede or follow the direct object. The particle tends to precede the object if the object is long, or if the intention is that the object should receive end-focus.
There is no sensitive method of testin cohesion by placing the particle before the subject as this position is not possible. Like transitive verbs in general type2 phrasal verbs can normaly be turned into the passive without stylistic awkwardness. The particle cannot normaly be placed after a clausal object.
