How children learn language

-By the age of 4 we have the basic vocab., syntax & pronunciaion of our language.

Language learning must be separated into 2 psychological processes : speech production & speech understanding.

-Speech production :

-Vocalization: at 1st babies cry, blow, gurgle, make undescribeable noises. This gets them practice articulation, control of breathing w/ the making of sounds. The next stage is “babbling” a type of vocalization where the child uses speech sounds (vowels & consonant-vowel syllables) eg. papa, mama, gigi… Also, the babies 1st acquire intonation patterns, even b4 producing any words.

-The 1-word utterance : There’s no precise determination of when children start to say the 1st words (may start as early as 4 months, up to 18 months), because there’re great individual differences. However around 3 ys of age the differences disappear. Also its not easy to determine whether a word has been learned or not. There has to be a meaningful use of sounds.

-The uses of a single word : eg. the same word “banana” can be used to name an object, or for request. Or to emphasize actions like “bye-bye” accompanied by a wave of the hand when leave taking. Single words can be used to express complex situations (peach, Daddy, spoon -> dad put a piece of peach onto the spoon).

-2 & 3 word utterances : At around 18 months children start to produce them. Tend to express ideas of quantity, possession, negation, attribute. (eg. “More milk”). The purposes may be: request, warning, answer, question refusal, inform, or even bragging. At this stage the child understands much more than (s)he can produce. The utterances mainly consist of Ns, Vs, adjectives (the content classes), lacking function words such as articles, prepositions, auxiliaries & modals. Also, there’s a lack of inflections (plurals, verb endings, tense markings etc.). ->telegraphic stage

-Function words & inflections : now the child has something on which to elaborate, acquisition of these “grammatical morphemes” -> a theory of order of acquisition by Roger Brown : present progressive; prepositions in, on; plural; past irregular; possessive; articles; past regular; 3rd person regular / irregular; aux. “be” (regular); aux. “be” (contracted). -> on the basis of this theory some important questions arise :

-1. Why might the plural & possessive learnt b4 the 3rd person ? -> its because of the actual physical situations & objects readily observed in the environment. 3rd person simply serves less vital communicational needs.

-2. Why might be present learnt b4 past? -> a great deal of analysis is required to learn the past. The child must 1st acquire the morpheme struct. 4 the present. (At first he needs to have something in the immediate environment to relate others’ speech to.

-3. Why might be past irregular learnt b4 past regular? -> The irregular sound changes are more noticable. Irregular verbs tend to be especially important in everyday life.

-4. Why might be the regular aux. “be” learnt b4 the contracted version? ->the uncontracted version constitutes a complete syllable while the contracted forms dont. A syllable is easier to hear.

So we can conclude the factors that determine the order of acqusition of language : meaningfulness, ease of observability, noticeability of sound change difference.

-Developing complex sentences: w/ longer utterances children start to make negatives, questions, rel. clauses … eg. the acquisistion of negation has 3 main periods : #1: “No the sun shining” the neg. marker is placed at the front of an affirmative utterance (in English). Japanese children place it after the utterance according to their structure of language. ; #2: “He no bite you”, “We cant talk” the neg. marker tends to appear internally & contractions begin to appear. The neg. imperative is sstill poory formed (“No play that”) ; #3: The child still makes errors but has a good idea when “do” is not inserted (“I am not a doctor”) : when there’s a modal or when “be” is the verb.

-Speech understanding : Chlild will only discover the meaning of speech sounds if some relevant environmental experience or clue is provided at the same time so that (s)he can relate to it. Even abstract words are learnt in such way. The child must 1st learn to understand speec b4 (s)he is able to produce it meaningfully. So comprehension develops in advance of speech production (empirical evidences show that small children are able to respond to comands well beyond their speech level). Its also observed tthat some children completely skip over some stages of development (eg Einstein was slow to start to speak but when he started he spoke sentences.).

-Learnng abstract words : the child must observe speech along w/ situations in which abstract words are involved. Eg. “hunger” -> Are you hungry? Do u want a banana? (offering the child a banana). (on the same analogy w/ “pain”).

-Memory : memory is a cruicially important psychological factor in language acquisition. A child must remember a multitude of words, phrases … along w/ the contexts in which they occured.

-Parentese & baby talk

-Parentese (motherese) is the speech that children receive when they’re young. -> usually about whats happening in the immediate environment, w/ a simple vocab. & structure (though regular!). Also : more pauses inserted than normal, & the more words are given stress & emphasis. ->highlight child’s attention to important constituents. This all serves to make the acquisition of the learer easier.

-Baby Talk: this involves overly simplified & reduced vocab. & syntax. Parents believe it serves to foster communication. It has modifications in vocab. : eg. pee-pee (urine). Also it can be a construction principle w/ these words that they represent the sounds which various things make (bow-wow - dog). Another characteristic is the adding of an “iy” sound to words’ endings (birdy, kitty). This provides a vowel 4 the competion of the consonant+vowel syllable. Besides it has a diminutive & affectionate tone. ; Syntax’s role is not prominent, parents occassionally use baby talk syntax (telegraphic) eg. “Mommy give Tony banana”.

-Imitation & correction :

-The role of imitation : children imitate intonation patterns & sounds of their language & tend to approximate the proper order of words in a sentence. However imitation cannot account for the acquisition of rules, grammatical morphemes. -> English children commonly make mistakes like : mouses, goed, comed … ->that cant be imitation but can only mean that children formulate rules in their minds & construct words on their basis. -> rules cannot be imitated , they’re abstract constructions of the mind.

-The role of correction : its is NOT an important factor in the process of language acquisition. Anyway usually parents are more concerned in the truth valuse or the cleverness of what the child said. Children naturally their own mistakes over time w/out the intervention of others.

Gerard Manley Hopkins

Gerard Manley Hopkins was born in 1844 to devout Anglican parents who fostered from an early age their eldest son's commitment to religion and to the creative arts. His mother, quite well educated for a woman of her day, was an avid reader. His father wrote and reviewed poetry and even authored a novel, though it was never published. Hopkins also had a number of relatives who were interested in literature, music, and the visual arts, some as dabblers and some professionals; he and his siblings showed similarly creative dispositions from an early age, and Hopkins enjoyed a great deal of support and encouragement for his creative endeavors. He studied drawing and music and at one point hoped to become a painter--as, indeed, two of his brothers did. Even his earliest verses displayed a vast verbal talent.
Hopkins was born in Essex, England, in an area that was then being transformed by industrial development. His family moved to the relatively undefiled neighborhood of Hampstead, north of the city, in 1852, out of a conviction that proximity to nature was important to a healthy, wholesome, and religious upbringing. From 1854 to 1863 Hopkins attended Highgate Grammar School, where he studied under Canon Dixon, who became a lifelong friend and who encouraged his interest in Keats. At Oxford, Hopkins pursued Latin and Greek. He was a student of Walter Pater and befriended the poet Robert Bridges and Coleridge's grandson. In the 1860s Hopkins was profoundly influenced by Christina Rossetti and was interested in medievalism, the Pre-Raphaelites, and developments in Victorian religious poetry. He also became preoccupied with the major religious controversies that were fermenting within the Anglican Church. Centered at Oxford, the main debate took place between two reform groups: the Tractarians, whose critics accused them of being too close to Catholicism in their emphasis on ritual and church traditions (it was in this culture that Hopkins was reared), and the Broad Church Movement, whose followers believed that all religious faith should be scrutinized on a basis of empirical evidence and logic. Immersed in intense debate over such issues, Hopkins entered into a process of soul-searching, and after much deliberation abandoned the religion of his family and converted to Catholicism. He threw his whole heart and life behind his conversion, deciding to become a Jesuit priest.
Hopkins undertook a lengthy course of training for the priesthood; for seven years he wrote almost no verse, having decided that one who had pledged his life to God should not pursue poetry. Only at the urging of church officials did Hopkins resume his poetry, while studying theology in North Wales, in 1875. He wrote The Wreck of the Deutschland in 1876 and, during the course of the next year, composed many of his most famous sonnets. Hopkins's subject matter in these mature poems is wholly religious--he believed that by making his work religious-themed he might make poetry a part of his religious vocation. These post-1875 poems follow a style quite different from that of Hopkins's earlier verse. After his ordination in 1877, Hopkins did parish work in a number of locales. He spent the last years of his short life quite unhappily in Dublin, where he wrote a group of melancholy poems often referred to as the "Terrible Sonnets" or "Sonnets of Desolation"; they exquisitely render the spiritual anguish for which Hopkins is famous. The great poet died of typhoid fever in 1877 in Dublin in 1877.
Gerard Manley Hopkins is one of the greatest 19th-century poets of religion, of nature, and of inner anguish. In his view of nature, the world is like a book written by God. In this book God expresses himself completely, and it is by "reading" the world that humans can approach God and learn about Him. Hopkins therefore sees the environmental crisis of the Victorian period as vitally linked to that era's spiritual crisis, and many of his poems bemoan man's indifference to the destruction of sacred natural and religious order. The poet harbored an acute interest in the scientific and technological advances of his day; he saw new discoveries (such as the new explanations for phenomena in electricity or astronomy} as further evidence of God's deliberate hand, rather than as refutations of God's existence.
One of Hopkins's most famous (and most debated) theories centers on the concept of "inscape." He coined this word to refer to the essential individuality of a thing, but with a focus not on its particularity or uniqueness, but rather on the unifying design that gives a thing its distinctive characteristics and relates it to its context. Hopkins was interested in the exquisite interrelation of the individual thing and the recurring pattern. He saw the world as a kind of network integrated by divine law and design.
Hopkins wrote most frequently in the sonnet form. He generally preferred the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet, which consists of an octave followed by a sestet, with a turn in argument or change in tone occurring in the second part. Hopkins typically uses the octave to present some account of personal or sensory experience and then employs the sestet for philosophical reflection. While Hopkins enjoyed the structure the sonnet form imposes, with its fixed length and rhyme scheme, he nevertheless constantly stretched and tested its limitations. One of his major innovations was a new metrical form, called "sprung rhythm." In sprung rhythm, the poet counts the number of accented syllables in the line, but places no limit on the total number of syllables. As opposed to syllabic meters (such as the iambic), which count both stresses and syllables, this form allows for greater freedom in the position and proportion of stresses. Whereas English verse has traditionally alternated stressed and unstressed syllables with occasional variation, Hopkins was free to place multiple stressed syllables one after another (as in the line "All felled, felled, are all felled" from "Binsey Poplars"), or to run a large number of unstressed syllables together (as in "Finger of a tender of, O of a feathery delicacy" from Wreck of the Deutschland). This gives Hopkins great control over the speed of his lines and their dramatic effects.
Another unusual poetic resource Hopkins favored is "consonant chiming," a technique he learned from Welsh poetry. The technique involves elaborate use of alliteration and internal rhyme; in Hopkins's hands this creates an unusual thickness and resonance. This close linking of words through sound and rhythm complements Hopkins's themes of finding pattern and design everywhere. Hopkins's form is also characterized by a stretching of the conventions of grammar and sentence structure, so that newcomers to his poetry must often strain to parse his sentences. Deciding which word in a given sentence is the verb, for example, can often involve significant interpretive work. In addition, Hopkins often invents words, and pulls his vocabulary freely from a number of different registers of diction. This leads to a surprising mix of neologisms and archaisms throughout his lines. Yet for all his innovation and disregard of convention, Hopkins' goal was always to bring poetry closer to the character of natural, living speech.

God's Grandeur" (1877)
Complete Text


The world is charged with the grandeur of God.
It will flame out, like shining from shook foil;
It gathers to a greatness, like the ooze of oil
Crushed. Why do men then now not reck his rod?
Generations have trod, have trod, have trod;
And all is seared with trade; bleared, smeared with toil;
And wears man's smudge and shares man's smell: the soil
Is bare now, nor can foot feel, being shod.
And for all this, nature is never spent;
There lives the dearest freshness deep down things;
And though the last lights off the black West went
Oh, morning, at the brown brink eastward, springs--
Because the Holy Ghost over the bent
World broods with warm breast and with ah! bright wings.




Summary
The first four lines of the octave (the first eight-line stanza of an Italian sonnet) describe a natural world through which God's presence runs like an electrical current, becoming momentarily visible in flashes like the refracted glintings of light produced by metal foil when rumpled or quickly moved. Alternatively, God's presence is a rich oil, a kind of sap that wells up "to a greatness" when tapped with a certain kind of patient pressure. Given these clear, strong proofs of God's presence in the world, the poet asks how it is that humans fail to heed ("reck") His divine authority ("his rod").
The second quatrain within the octave describes the state of contemporary human life--the blind repetitiveness of human labor, and the sordidness and stain of "toil" and "trade." The landscape in its natural state reflects God as its creator; but industry and the prioritization of the economic over the spiritual have transformed the landscape, and robbed humans of their sensitivity to the those few beauties of nature still left. The shoes people wear sever the physical connection between our feet and the earth they walk on, symbolizing an ever-increasing spiritual alienation from nature.
The sestet (the final six lines of the sonnet, enacting a turn or shift in argument) asserts that, in spite of the fallenness of Hopkins's contemporary Victorian world, nature does not cease offering up its spiritual indices. Permeating the world is a deep "freshness" that testifies to the continual renewing power of God's creation. This power of renewal is seen in the way morning always waits on the other side of dark night. The source of this constant regeneration is the grace of a God who "broods" over a seemingly lifeless world with the patient nurture of a mother hen. This final image is one of God guarding the potential of the world and containing within Himself the power and promise of rebirth. With the final exclamation ("ah! bright wings") Hopkins suggests both an awed intuition of the beauty of God's grace, and the joyful suddenness of a hatchling bird emerging out of God's loving incubation.

Form
This poem is an Italian sonnet--it contains fourteen lines divided into an octave and a sestet, which are separated by a shift in the argumentative direction of the poem. The meter here is not the "sprung rhythm" for which Hopkins is so famous, but it does vary somewhat from the iambic pentameter lines of the conventional sonnet. For example, Hopkins follows stressed syllable with stressed syllable in the fourth line of the poem, bolstering the urgency of his question: "Why do men then now not reck his rod?" Similarly, in the next line, the heavy, falling rhythm of "have trod, have trod, have trod," coming after the quick lilt of "generations," recreates the sound of plodding footsteps in striking onomatopoeia.

Commentary
The poem begins with the surprising metaphor of God's grandeur as an electric force. The figure suggests an undercurrent that is not always seen, but which builds up a tension or pressure that occasionally flashes out in ways that can be both brilliant and dangerous. The optical effect of "shook foil" is one example of this brilliancy. The image of the oil being pressed out of an olive represents another kind of richness, where saturation and built-up pressure eventually culminate in a salubrious overflow. The image of electricity makes a subtle return in the fourth line, where the "rod" of God's punishing power calls to mind the lightning rod in which excess electricity in the atmosphere will occasionally "flame out." Hopkins carefully chooses this complex of images to link the secular and scientific to mystery, divinity, and religious tradition. Electricity was an area of much scientific interest during Hopkins's day, and is an example of a phenomenon that had long been taken as an indication of divine power but which was now explained in naturalistic, rational terms. Hopkins is defiantly affirmative in his assertion that God's work is still to be seen in nature, if men will only concern themselves to look. Refusing to ignore the discoveries of modern science, he takes them as further evidence of God's grandeur rather than a challenge to it. Hopkins's awe at the optical effects of a piece of foil attributes revelatory power to a man-made object; gold-leaf foil had also been used in recent influential scientific experiments. The olive oil, on the other hand, is an ancient sacramental substance, used for centuries for food, medicine, lamplight, and religious purposes. This oil thus traditionally appears in all aspects of life, much as God suffuses all branches of the created universe. Moreover, the slowness of its oozing contrasts with the quick electric flash; the method of its extraction implies such spiritual qualities as patience and faith. (By including this description Hopkins may have been implicitly criticizing the violence and rapaciousness with which his contemporaries drilled petroleum oil to fuel industry.) Thus both the images of the foil and the olive oil bespeak an all-permeating divine presence that reveals itself in intermittent flashes or droplets of brilliance.
Hopkins's question in the fourth line focuses his readers on the present historical moment; in considering why men are no longer God-fearing, the emphasis is on "now." The answer is a complex one. The second quatrain contains an indictment of the way a culture's neglect of God translates into a neglect of the environment. But it also suggests that the abuses of previous generations are partly to blame; they have soiled and "seared" our world, further hindering our ability to access the holy. Yet the sestet affirms that, in spite of the interdependent deterioration of human beings and the earth, God has not withdrawn from either. He possesses an infinite power of renewal, to which the regenerative natural cycles testify. The poem reflects Hopkins's conviction that the physical world is like a book written by God, in which the attentive person can always detect signs of a benevolent authorship, and which can help mediate human beings' contemplation of this Author.

The Windhover"

Complete Text



To Christ our Lord

I caught this morning morning's minion, kingdom of daylight's dauphin, dapple-
dawn-drawn Falcon, in his riding
Of the rolling level underneath him steady air, and striding
High there, how he rung upon the rein of a wimpling wing
In his ecstasy! then off, off forth on swing,
As a skate's heel sweeps smooth on a bow-bend: the hurl and gliding
Rebuffed the big wind. My heart in hiding
Stirred for a bird,--the achieve of, the mastery of the thing!

Brute beauty and valour and act, oh, air, pride, plume, here
Buckle! AND the fire that breaks from thee then, a billion
Times told lovelier, more dangerous, O my chevalier!

No wonder of it: sheer plod makes plough down sillion
Shine, and blue-bleak embers, ah my dear,
Fall, gall themselves, and gash gold-vermillion.




Summary
The windhover is a bird with the rare ability to hover in the air, essentially flying in place while it scans the ground in search of prey. The poet describes how he saw (or "caught") one of these birds in the midst of its hovering. The bird strikes the poet as the darling ("minion") of the morning, the crown prince ("dauphin") of the kingdom of daylight, drawn by the dappled colors of dawn. It rides the air as if it were on horseback, moving with steady control like a rider whose hold on the rein is sure and firm. In the poet's imagination, the windhover sits high and proud, tightly reined in, wings quivering and tense. Its motion is controlled and suspended in an ecstatic moment of concentrated energy. Then, in the next moment, the bird is off again, now like an ice skater balancing forces as he makes a turn. The bird, first matching the wind's force in order to stay still, now "rebuff[s] the big wind" with its forward propulsion. At the same moment, the poet feels his own heart stir, or lurch forward out of "hiding," as it were--moved by "the achieve of, the mastery of" the bird's performance.
The opening of the sestet serves as both a further elaboration on the bird's movement and an injunction to the poet's own heart. The "beauty," "valour," and "act" (like "air," "pride," and "plume") "here buckle." "Buckle" is the verb here; it denotes either a fastening (like the buckling of a belt), a coming together of these different parts of a creature's being, or an acquiescent collapse (like the "buckling" of the knees), in which all parts subordinate themselves into some larger purpose or cause. In either case, a unification takes place. At the moment of this integration, a glorious fire issues forth, of the same order as the glory of Christ's life and crucifixion, though not as grand.

Form
The confusing grammatical structures and sentence order in this sonnet contribute to its difficulty, but they also represent a masterful use of language. Hopkins blends and confuses adjectives, verbs, and subjects in order to echo his theme of smooth merging: the bird's perfect immersion in the air, and the fact that his self and his action are inseparable. Note, too, how important the "-ing" ending is to the poem's rhyme scheme; it occurs in verbs, adjectives, and nouns, linking the different parts of the sentences together in an intense unity. A great number of verbs are packed into a short space of lines, as Hopkins tries to nail down with as much descriptive precision as possible the exact character of the bird's motion.
"The Windhover" is written in "sprung rhythm," a meter in which the number of accents in a line are counted but the number of syllables does not matter. This technique allows Hopkins to vary the speed of his lines so as to capture the bird's pausing and racing. Listen to the hovering rhythm of "the rolling level underneath him steady air," and the arched brightness of "and striding high there." The poem slows abruptly at the end, pausing in awe to reflect on Christ.

Commentary
This poem follows the pattern of so many of Hopkins's sonnets, in that a sensuous experience or description leads to a set of moral reflections. Part of the beauty of the poem lies in the way Hopkins integrates his masterful description of a bird's physical feat with an account of his own heart's response at the end of the first stanza. However, the sestet has puzzled many readers because it seems to diverge so widely from the material introduced in the octave. At line nine, the poem shifts into the present tense, away from the recollection of the bird. The horse-and-rider metaphor with which Hopkins depicted the windhover's motion now give way to the phrase "my chevalier"--a traditional Medieval image of Christ as a knight on horseback, to which the poem's subtitle (or dedication) gives the reader a clue. The transition between octave and sestet comes with the statement in lines 9-11 that the natural ("brute") beauty of the bird in flight is but a spark in comparison with the glory of Christ, whose grandeur and spiritual power are "a billion times told lovelier, more dangerous."
The first sentence of the sestet can read as either descriptive or imperative, or both. The idea is that something glorious happens when a being's physical body, will, and action are all brought into accordance with God's will, culminating in the perfect self-expression. Hopkins, realizing that his own heart was "in hiding," or not fully committed to its own purpose, draws inspiration from the bird's perfectly self-contained, self-reflecting action. Just as the hovering is the action most distinctive and self-defining for the windhover, so spiritual striving is man's most essential aspect. At moments when humans arrive at the fullness of their moral nature, they achieve something great. But that greatness necessarily pales in comparison with the ultimate act of self-sacrifice performed by Christ, which nevertheless serves as our model and standard for our own behavior.
The final tercet within the sestet declares that this phenomenon is not a "wonder," but rather an everyday occurrence--part of what it means to be human. This striving, far from exhausting the individual, serves to bring out his or her inner glow--much as the daily use of a metal plow, instead of wearing it down, actually polishes it--causing it to sparkle and shine. The suggestion is that there is a glittering, luminous core to every individual, which a concerted religious life can expose. The subsequent image is of embers breaking open to reveal a smoldering interior. Hopkins words this image so as to relate the concept back to the Crucifixion: The verb "gash" (which doubles for "gush") suggests the wounding of Christ's body and the shedding of his "gold-vermilion" blood.

Pied Beauty" (1877)

Complete Text



Glory be to God for dappled things--
For skies of couple-colour as a brinded cow;
For rose-moles all in stipple upon trout that swim;
Fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls; finches' wings;
Landscape plotted and pieced--fold, fallow, and plough;
And áll trádes, their gear and tackle and trim.
All things counter, original, spare, strange;
Whatever is fickle, freckled (who knows how?)
With swift, slow; sweet, sour; adazzle, dim;
He fathers-forth whose beauty is past change: Praise Him.




Summary
The poem opens with an offering: "Glory be to God for dappled things." In the next five lines, Hopkins elaborates with examples of what things he means to include under this rubric of "dappled." He includes the mottled white and blue colors of the sky, the "brinded" (brindled or streaked) hide of a cow, and the patches of contrasting color on a trout. The chestnuts offer a slightly more complex image: When they fall they open to reveal the meaty interior normally concealed by the hard shell; they are compared to the coals in a fire, black on the outside and glowing within. The wings of finches are multicolored, as is a patchwork of farmland in which sections look different according to whether they are planted and green, fallow, or freshly plowed. The final example is of the "trades" and activities of man, with their rich diversity of materials and equipment.
In the final five lines, Hopkins goes on to consider more closely the characteristics of these examples he has given, attaching moral qualities now to the concept of variety and diversity that he has elaborated thus far mostly in terms of physical characteristics. The poem becomes an apology for these unconventional or "strange" things, things that might not normally be valued or thought beautiful. They are all, he avers, creations of God, which, in their multiplicity, point always to the unity and permanence of His power and inspire us to "Praise Him."

Form
This is one of Hopkins's "curtal" (or curtailed) sonnets, in which he miniaturizes the traditional sonnet form by reducing the eight lines of the octave to six (here two tercets rhyming ABC ABC) and shortening the six lines of the sestet to four and a half. This alteration of the sonnet form is quite fitting for a poem advocating originality and contrariness. The strikingly musical repetition of sounds throughout the poem ("dappled," "stipple," "tackle," "fickle," "freckled," "adazzle," for example) enacts the creative act the poem glorifies: the weaving together of diverse things into a pleasing and coherent whole.

Commentary
This poem is a miniature or set-piece, and a kind of ritual observance. It begins and ends with variations on the mottoes of the Jesuit order ("to the greater glory of God" and "praise to God always"), which give it a traditional flavor, tempering the unorthodoxy of its appreciations. The parallelism of the beginning and end correspond to a larger symmetry within the poem: the first part (the shortened octave) begins with God and then moves to praise his creations. The last four-and-a-half lines reverse this movement, beginning with the characteristics of things in the world and then tracing them back to a final affirmation of God. The delay of the verb in this extended sentence makes this return all the more satisfying when it comes; the long and list-like predicate, which captures the multiplicity of the created world, at last yields in the penultimate line to a striking verb of creation (fathers-forth) and then leads us to acknowledge an absolute subject, God the Creator. The poem is thus a hymn of creation, praising God by praising the created world. It expresses the theological position that the great variety in the natural world is a testimony to the perfect unity of God and the infinitude of His creative power. In the context of a Victorian age that valued uniformity, efficiency, and standardization, this theological notion takes on a tone of protest.
Why does Hopkins choose to commend "dappled things" in particular? The first stanza would lead the reader to believe that their significance is an aesthetic one: In showing how contrasts and juxtapositions increase the richness of our surroundings, Hopkins describes variations in color and texture--of the sensory. The mention of the "fresh-firecoal chestnut-falls" in the fourth line, however, introduces a moral tenor to the list. Though the description is still physical, the idea of a nugget of goodness imprisoned within a hard exterior invites a consideration of essential value in a way that the speckles on a cow, for example, do not. The image transcends the physical, implying how the physical links to the spiritual and meditating on the relationship between body and soul. Lines five and six then serve to connect these musings to human life and activity. Hopkins first introduces a landscape whose characteristics derive from man's alteration (the fields), and then includes "trades," "gear," "tackle," and "trim" as diverse items that are man-made. But he then goes on to include these things, along with the preceding list, as part of God's work.
Hopkins does not refer explicitly to human beings themselves, or to the variations that exist among them, in his catalogue of the dappled and diverse. But the next section opens with a list of qualities ("counter, original, spare, strange") which, though they doggedly refer to "things" rather than people, cannot but be considered in moral terms as well; Hopkins's own life, and particularly his poetry, had at the time been described in those very terms. With "fickle" and "freckled" in the eighth line, Hopkins introduces a moral and an aesthetic quality, each of which would conventionally convey a negative judgment, in order to fold even the base and the ugly back into his worshipful inventory of God's gloriously "pied" creation.

Spring and Fall" (1880)

Complete Text



To a young child

Margaret, are you grieving
Over Goldengrove unleaving?
Leaves, like the things of man, you
With your fresh thoughts care for, can you?
Ah! as the heart grows older
It will come to such sights colder
By and by, nor spare a sigh
Though worlds of wanwood leafmeal lie;
And yet you will weep know why.
Now no matter, child, the name:
Sorrow's springs are the same.
Nor mouth had, no nor mind, expressed
What heart heard of, ghost guessed:
It is the blight man was born for,
It is Margaret you mourn for.




Summary
The poem opens with a question to a child: "Margaret, are you grieving / Over Goldengrove unleaving?" "Goldengrove," a place whose name suggests an idyllic play-world, is "unleaving," or losing its leaves as winter approaches. And the child, with her "fresh thoughts," cares about the leaves as much as about "the things of man." The speaker reflects that age will alter this innocent response, and that later whole "worlds" of forest will lie in leafless disarray ("leafmeal," like "piecemeal") without arousing Margaret's sympathy. The child will weep then, too, but for a more conscious reason. However, the source of this knowing sadness will be the same as that of her childish grief--for "sorrow's springs are the same." That is, though neither her mouth nor her mind can yet articulate the fact as clearly as her adult self will, Margaret is already mourning over her own mortality.

Form
This poem has a lyrical rhythm appropriate for an address to a child. In fact, it appears that Hopkins began composing a musical accompaniment to the verse, though no copy of it remains extant. The lines form couplets and each line has four beats, like the characteristic ballad line, though they contain an irregular number of syllables. The sing-song effect this creates in the first eight lines is complicated into something more uneasy in the last seven; the rhymed triplet at the center of the poem creates a pivot for this change. Hopkins' "sprung rhythm" meter (see the Analysis section of this SparkNote for more on "sprung rhythm") lets him orchestrate the juxtapositions of stresses in unusual ways. He sometimes incorporates pauses, like musical rests, in places where we would expect a syllable to separate two stresses (for example, after "Margaret" in the first line and "Leaves" in the third). At other times he lets the stresses stand together for emphasis, as in "will weep" and "ghost guessed"; the alliteration here contributes to the emphatic slowing of the rhythm at these most earnest and dramatic points in the poem.

Commentary
The title of the poem invites us to associate the young girl, Margaret, in her freshness, innocence, and directness of emotion, with the springtime. Hopkins's choice of the American word "fall" rather than the British "autumn" is deliberate; it links the idea of autumnal decline or decay with the biblical Fall of man from grace. That primordial episode of loss initiated human mortality and suffering; in contrast, the life of a young child, as Hopkins suggests (and as so many poets have before him--particularly the Romantics), approximates the Edenic state of man before the Fall. Margaret lives in a state of harmony with nature that allows her to relate to her paradisal "Goldengrove" with the same sympathy she bears for human beings or, put more cynically, for "the things of man."
Margaret experiences an emotional crisis when confronted with the fact of death and decay that the falling leaves represent. What interests the speaker about her grief is that it represents such a singular (and precious) phase in the development of a human being's understanding about death and loss; only because Margaret has already reached a certain level of maturity can she feel sorrow at the onset of autumn. The speaker knows what she does not, namely, that as she grows older she will continue to experience this same grief, but with more self-consciousness about its real meaning ("you will weep, and know why"), and without the same mediating (and admittedly endearing) sympathy for inanimate objects ("nor spare a sigh, / Though worlds of wanwood leafmeal lie"). This eighth line is perhaps one of the most beautiful in all of Hopkins's work: The word "worlds" suggests a devastation and decline that spreads without end, well beyond the bounds of the little "Goldengrove" that seems so vast and significant to a child's perception. Loss is basic to the human experience, and it is absolute and all-consuming. "Wanwood" carries the suggestion of pallor and sickness in the word "wan," and also provides a nice description of the fading colors of the earth as winter dormancy approaches. The word "leafmeal," which Hopkins coined by analogy with "piecemeal," expresses with poignancy the sense of wholesale havoc with which the sight of strewn fallen leaves might strike a naive and sensitive mind.
In the final, and heaviest, movement of the poem, Hopkins goes on to identify what this sorrow is that Margaret feels and will, he assures us, continue to feel, although in different ways. The statement in line 11 that "Sorrow's springs are the same" suggests not only that all sorrows have the same source, but also that Margaret, who is associated with springtime, represents a stage all people go through in coming to understand mortality and loss. What is so remarkable about this stage is that while the "mouth" cannot say what the grief is for, nor the mind even articulate it silently, a kind of understanding nevertheless materializes. It is a whisper to the heart, something "guessed" at by the "ghost" or spirit--a purely intuitive notion of the fact that all grieving points back to the self: to one's own suffering of losses, and ultimately to one's own mortality.
Though the narrator's tone toward the child is tender and sympathetic, he does not try to comfort her. Nor are his reflections really addressed to her because they are beyond her level of understanding. We suspect that the poet has at some point gone through the same ruminations that he now observes in Margaret; and that his once-intuitive grief then led to these more conscious reflections. Her way of confronting loss is emotional and vague; his is philosophical, poetical, and generalizing, and we see that this is his more mature--and "colder"--way of likewise mourning for his own mortality.

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.

There are two forms: the past and the present subjunctive. Their use relates to mood rather than tense. Where the clause has a plural subject there is no difference between the indicative and subjunctive forms: I insist that we reconsider the council's decisions. BUT I insist that the council reconsider its decisions or I insist that the council's decisions be reconsidered. In the firs case it can be both indicative or subjunctive, but in the last two cases it is subjuntive.
In case of past subjunctive it is no matter what form the verb be takes on in indicative the past form will always be were. If he were leaving, you would have heard about it.
A passive subjunctive is a possibility for the mandative and the formulaic subjunctive as well. In case of the verb be, not may be placed before or after the verb. It is essential that this mission not fail.

THE MANDATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE:

This is the most common use. Occurs in subordinate that clauses and consists of the base form of the verb. The present and past forms are indistinguishable: The commitee proposes(ed)(that) Mr Smith be elected. That clause with mandative subjunctive can be introduced by verbs suc as: decide, insist, move, order, prefer, request. Adjectives: advisable, desirable, fitting, imperative. Nouns: decision, decree, order, requirement, resolution. The mandative is more characteristic in AmE, where it is formal. BrE: The employees demanded that the manager should resign/resigns. In AmE: /resign.

THE FORMULAIC SUBJUNCTIVE:

Like the latter it consists of the base form of the verb, but it is used in certain expressions chiefly in independent clauses. Come what may/God save the Queen/Suffice it to say/Heaven forbid that/ Be it notted that/Be that as it may..... (tegyünkúgy mintha).

Other uses of the present subjunctive:

In clauses of condition and concession: Even if that be the official view, it cannot be accepted.
Clauses of condition or negative purpose introduced by lest or for fear that.
The president must reject this proposal, lest it cause strife and violence.

The were subjunctive:

It is unreal in meaning, being used in adverbial clauses introduced by such conjunctions as: if, as if, as though, though, and in nominal clauses after verbs like wish and suppose. We only use were in these cases. Though in less formal style was is also permitted.:
If I were rich, I would buy you anything you wanted. I wish the journey were over. Just suppose everyone were to give up smoking and drinking. It is less usual nowadays.



17. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE: (the passive auxiliaries BE and GET)

Voice distinguishes an active verb phrase from a passive one. It makes possible to view the action of a sentence in two ways. The active passive relation involves two grammatical levels: the verb phrase and the clause.

The active-passive correspondence: Changing from active to passive involves rearangement of two clause elements: The active subject becomes the passive agent, and the active object becomes the passive subject. And the preposition BY can be introduced before the agent. John (active subj.) admired(active verb) Mary. Mary(passive subject) was admired(passive verb) by John(by phrase agent).

The passive auxiliaries BE and GET: The passive auxiliary is normaly BE. We may use GET but it normaly used in case in consructions without animate agent: The cat got run over by a bus. or James got beaten last night. But using it with animate agent is also possible: James got beaten by a gang.
This GET passive is avoided in formal style. The house is getting rebuilt. Sounds unfamiliar.
Even though we use GET in cases of copular sentences, ( I have to get dressed before 8 o'clock)
But these sentences mustn't be confused with passive sentences. These we also call PSEUDO- PASSIVES. GET puts the emphasis on the subject rather than the agent in both cases (copu. and passive). Get passive often reflects an unfavourable attitude towards the action: How did that window get opened.

Voice constraints: Where the active and passive sentences are not in systematic correspondence:
Five kinds of voice constraint: verb, object, agent, meaning, frequency of use.

Verb constraints: a/ active only: copular and intransitive verbs and the so called "middle verbs do not occur in some senses in passive: have, lack, The auditorium holds 5000 people, The dress becomes her, resemble, suit. But stative verbs of attitude can occur in the passive: He is wanted by the police.

In some cases only the passive is possible: John was said to be good teatcher. They said him to be a good teatcher (difference) .

Prepositional verbs. In passive they are normally verbal idioms. The enginneers went very carefully into the problem. becomes: The problem was carefully gone into by the engineers. (no sense with tunnel).
Object constraints: Transitive verbs can be followed by clausal or phrasal object. With clauses as objects the passive is restricted in use: Noun phrase as obj.: John loved Mary, Mary was loved by John. Clause as object: Finite clause: John thought that she was attractive. we dont say: That she was attractive was thought by Tom. In Nonfinite clause: infinite: John hoped to meet her. we dont say: To meet her was hoped by John. John enjoyed seeing her. we dont say Seeing her was enjoyed by Tom.

Constraints occur in case of reflexive, reciprocal and possessive pronouns. himself could be seen, each other could be seen, my hand was shaken by the man these are all wrong. And passive is not used for idioms in which the verb and the object form a close unit. The ship set sail and not Sail was set.
Agent constraints: In most cases the agent is missing when it is irrelevant or missing. The Prime Minister has often been criticized recently. or where the agent is left out as redundant. Jack fought Michael last night and Jack was beaten. So from the passive we cant conclude to the agent of the active in most cases.

Meaning constraints: The meaning may differ in act and pass. John cannot do it. where it expresses ability, and It cannot be done by John, where it expresses possibility. or Every schoolboy knows one joke at least, which means Every schoolboy knows at least some joke or other. and One joke at least is known by every schoolboy, which means that there is one particular joke that is known to every schoolboy. Difference in meaning has also been noted where both subject and object of the active sentence are generic: Beavers build dams and Dams are built by beavers. (universal interpretation in the first case which doesn't work in the second case).

Frequency constraints: Stylistic factor determines frequency to a great extent. (impersonal vs. personal style).

The passive gradient: The grade of how strong the passive is.
Central passive or true passive: The violin vas made by my father . and The conclusion is hardly justified by the results. These sentences have a direct active-passive relation, but the first has a personal, the second has a nonpersonal agent.

Semi passives: Both verbal and adjectival properties. a) coordinating the participle with an adjective.
b) modifying with quite rather more c)replacing BE by a lexical copular verb such as feel or seem
We feel rather encouraged and content.... Leonard seemed very interested in and keen on linguistics.
In such adjectival uses of the past participle, it is rare to have a by phrase expressing the agent, but sometimes they occur: I feel rather let down by his indiference. Prepositions however can introduce agent-like phrases. (about,at,over,to,with) We were all worried about the complication=The complication worried us all.

Pseudo passives: these have no active form and no possibility of agent addition: The building is already demolished. Their verb+ed participle recommends as passives. In terms of meaning they of course have an active equivalent. In 1972 the democrats were defeated. Has dynamic and stative meaning. They occur with current(be,feel,look) and resulting(get,become,grow) copular verbs.


18 TIME, TENSE, AND THE VERB I :

The present tense as nonpast: There are three interpretations for present, future and past:
1. On the referential level: time as a line, on which past and future defined as the one that is behind and the one that is ahead of the present. 2. On the semantic level present is general and unmarked.
3. On the grammatical level: English has no future form of the verb. Present is unmarked tense that expresses future. Present is called nonpast as well.

Situation types: Stative and dynamic verb senses: 1. happenings take place in time denoted by verbs. 2. Can be expressed by an abstract noun (singular or plural). A verb can have both stative and dynamic meaning. For instance BE,HAVE,KNOW are stative verbs, they refer to states. But I have driven a sports car for years has a dynamic rather than stative meaning, because it refers to events. Dybamic verbs often imply an active performer of the action. That is why they regulary occur in imperative, but statives not. Dynamic verbs occur in claft sentences following do. What she did was to learn Spanish . There are some verbs in the cases of which making distinction is rather hard.

Meanings of the simple present with reference to present time: 1. Stative present: used without reference to specific time. Includes timeless statements or eternal truths'. Honesty is the best policy.
Scientific statements. We use it even if we know that the time span of the state is restricted to a certain degree: Everyone likes her. 2. Habitual present: They usually imply an unrestricted time span, but in this case it refers to a repeated sequence of events: Bill drinks heavily. A frequency adverbial can be added to specify the repetition. The state present refers to something which obtains at the time of speaking, this is unusual of the habitual present. 3. Instantaneous present: Refers to a single action that begun and completed approximately at the moment of speech. Singular count nouns. The event little duration. These are used in restricted situations: commentaries, demonstrations, special exclamatory sentences(off we go), performatives. In cease of the last one the verb is often a verb of speaking(advise,predict)describing the speech act of which it is a part. Must be simultanity between the speech and what it describes.

Special nonpresent uses of the present tense: 1. Simple present referring to the past.:
There is the historic present that describes the past as if it is happening now. So it conveys some dramatic immediacy of an eye-witness account. There are the verbs of communication The ten o'clock news says... (understand, hear, learn) these refer to the end of the comm. process. In some cases the communication event took place in the past, its result is still operative. (Bible) The book of Genesis speaks of the terrible faith of Sodom and Gomorrah. Referring to writers, composers and their extant work. Also can be used for general artistic characterisation. S.Present referring to the future: it suggests that the event is unalterably fixed in advance. The plane leaves at eight o'clock tonight. We use it in dependent clauses, partic. in conditional and temporal clauses. He'll do it if you pay him. S. Present in fictional narrative: close connection with historic present but the events are imaginery. The use in stage directions. Mallinson enters.

19. TIME TENSE AND THE VERB II.

Meanings of the past tense with reference to past time: Past tense combines two features of meaning: The event/state must have taken place in the past with a gap between its completion and the present moment. I stayed in Africa for several months Which means that I am no longer there. The speaker must have in mind a definite time at which the event/state took place. (last week, in 1932, yesterday)

Situational use of the past tense: for immediate situation Did you lock the front door or in domestic situation, in general knowledge Byron died in Greece .
Anaphoric and cataphoric use of the past tense: We call its use anaphoric when the time in the past to which the reference is made is already indicated by a previous use of the past tense. Then we entered the city....the square was deserted. Or in case of preceding use of the present perfective in the indefinite past sense. They have decided to close down the factory. It took us completely by surprise. Or when an adverbial of time occurs in the same clause. Last Saturday we went to...
When the adverbial follows the past tense this may be called the cataphoric use of definite past. The relevant time need not be specified.

Event, state, and habit in the past: Event past: single definite event in the past. State past: refers to a state. Habitual past: sequence of events. The event past is more common than the corresponding instantaneous present. Habitual and statemeanings can be paraphrased by means of used to. In those days we used to live in the .... Another distinguishing feature is the tendency for dynamic verbs to have a sequential interpretation when they occur in textual sequence. She addressed and posted the letter.

Meanings of the past tense with reference to present and future: There are three special meanings: In indirect speech the past tense of the reporting verb tends to make the verb of the subordinate clause past tense as well. This is known as backshifting. Did you say you had no money.
Yes I am completely broke. A different kind of backshift is observed when a sentence describing a speech or thought in the future contains a reported speech clause referring retrospectively to the present. My wife will be sorry that she missed seeing you this evening. The attitudinal past is used with verbs expressing mental state, reflects the tantative attitude of the speaker, rather than the past time. Did you want to see me now. The hypothetical past is used in certain subordinate clauses, especially in if clauses. If you really worked hard, you would soon get promoted. Expresses what is contrary to the belief or expectation of the speaker.


20. PERFECTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS I: Aspect refers to a gramm. category which reflects the way in which the verb action is regarded or experienced with respect to time. Not relative to the time of utterance.

Perfective aspect: In simple past the event has come to a close whereas the perfective indicates that the event is still in progress. Present perfective signifies past time with current relevance. The perfective indicates anterior time, which is (time preceding whatever time orientation is signalled by tense or by other elements of the sentence or its content.)(előidejű) Within this zone the action of the verb takes place. In case of present perfective, the time of orientation is not fixed(I have already met your sister) . In case of past perfective T2 is a specifiable secondary time of orientation in the past. In conditionals (3rd) the past tense indicates a hypothetical event. If you had listened to me.
The usage of past in future may occur in sentences like By next week they will have completed the work. Here the infinitive perfective occurs after a modal auxiliary and the time orientation derives not from the infinitive itself, but from the modal. The inf. perf. is in a nonfinite verb phrase which takes its time orientation from the main verb.

The present perfective: The present perfective differs from the simple past in relating a past event to a present time orientation. In cases where both simple past and present perfective can be used it is felt that they are not interchangeable. Present perfective relates the action more directly to the present time. Where did you put my purse. Where have you put my purse. In first case the speaker asks somebody to remember a past action while in the second case he asks his purse's whereabouts.
The simple present perfective has three meanings: State leading up to the present. That house has been empty for ages. Indefinite events in a period leading up to the present: Have you ever been to Florence. The past time in question is indefinite. Habit in a period leading up to the present. Mr Terry has sung in this choir ever since he was a boy.

Variants of the indefinite past meaning: There are three implications for present perfective :
The relevant time zone leads up to the present/ The event is recent/ The result of the action still obtains in the present time. The choice between the simp. past and the present perfect depends on wether the speaker has in mind an implicit or an explicit time zone. The present perfective is often used to report a piece of news. The president has resigned.
In case of dynamic conclusive verbs ( these imply the accomplishment of change of state)
The apples have all been eaten. The resultative and recency connotations can occur with time adverbials( recently and just) or( already and yet). The plane has just landed. Relationship adverbials(already,yet) can occur with both resultative and stative aspect.

The use of adverbials with the simple past and the present perfective: There are adverbials associated with the past tense: yesterday, a week ago, earlier this week, last Monday, the other day, at four, in the morning. Adverbials associated with the present perfect: up to now, since, so far, hitherto. Adv. associated with both: today, this month, recently, before, once, already.

The past perfective: Has the meaning of past in the past. The past perfective is to denote any event or state anterior to a time of orientation in the past. There are state event or habit meanings. In a clause introduced by AFTER past perfective is interchangeable with simple past: I ate my lunch after Sandra had come back from her shopping. It is also good with CAME. Adverbials of time position ca identify eighter T2 or T3 (then and before then) When the police arrived the thieves had run avay. But its better to say: The thieves had run away when the police arrived.


21. PERFECTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS II.

Progressive aspect: Indicates a happening in progress at a given time. . sings well and singing well. In PAST cases: Simple past: we see the event as a whole. In past progressive: we see it as an activity in progress. The meaning of the progressive : the happening has duration(distinctive for single events), the happening has limited duration(distinctive for states and habits), the happening is not necessarily complete(distinctive on the case of certain dynamic verb meanings. The first two suggests that the action is temporary. The progressive makes us see the event enduring over a period, rather than as happening all at once. Joan is singing well (shrinks the duration) Joan was singing well(lengthens the duration of the event) . I was reading a novel yesterday(no complition).

State, event, and habit with the progressive: State progressive: In many cases progressive is unacceptable with stative verbs. We own a house and not we are owning a house. And where it occurs it is felt to imply temporarynes: We are living in the country. Event progressive: conveys the idea that the event has duration, and has not yet come to an end. Blows his whistle and Blowing his whistle. The first is a brief blast and the second is a continous blowing. The Present prog. is a more common way of referring to a present event. Habitual progressive: habitual meaning and implies that the repetition takes place over a limited period. The professor is typing his own letters while his sec. is ill. Sometimes it combines with habitual meaning to suggest that every event in the sequence has duration. Whenever I see her she is working in the garden.

Situation types: Qualities: relatively permanent and inalienable (be tall). States are less permanent: (be angry) These statives and qualities do not occur in progressive. If yes than they contain a dynamic predication. Peter is being awkward. The progressive has a special effect sometimes. They are friendly and They are being friendly. In the second case it is a form of behaviour.

Private states: Intellectual states: know,believe,think,wonder,suppose. I understand that the offer..... States of emmotion: intend,wish,want,like. She likes to entertain the.. These can occur in progressive when the temporariness is emphasized. What were you wanting. I was hoping you would.. States of perception: see,hear,feel. States of bodily sensation: hurt, ache. My back aches or aching (interchangeable.

Verbs of perception: Perceiver at Subject position: I can see the house. Percept at subject pos: The house looks empty. Usage of can, could to express the state of perception. Simple pr. without modal would make the event seen as a whole. I heard the bell ring but I could hear the bells ringing. is a perception continuing over a period. In present it would be unusual. Instead of seeing and hearing we use looking at and listening to. But in certain circumstances for inst. hearing could occur: Commentator in Sky center: John ! We are not hearing you! (-:

Other states of being and having: They are the main stative verbs and can paraphrase other stative verbs. We agree with you and We are in agreement with you. There are other stative verbs which can be paraphrased in the same way. They are also called verbs of being and having. holds=has a capacity of or doesn't matter=is not important.

Type C: stance: Class of verbs such as live,stand,sit and lie. They are particular because they can be used with the nonprogressive to express a permanent state or with the progressive to express a temporary state. James lives in...(perm.) James is living in...(temp.) Similar with the perfective: I have sat here...and I have been sitting here...

Dynamic types D-K: There are 8 types according to three binary opposition. 1. Durative/punctual: happening capable of duration. 2. Conclusive/non-conclusive contrast: result in state or not in conclusive. 3. Agentive/non-agentive:When the subject refers to an agent. DO can substitute for an agentive situation type.

Durative situation types: D. goings-on. These are activities carried out by inanimate forces. It is raining. E. activities. Expressed by intransitive verbs with animate subjects: Jill was singing/working. F. processes:Denote a change of state taking place over a period. The weather is getting warmer.
G. accomplishments: denote an action which takes place over a period and has a goal or endpoint.
Jill is knitting herself a sweater.

Punctual situation types: H and I. momentary events and acts: H is nonagentive. Nod, fire, jump.
J and K. transitional events and acts: They have little or no duration and involve a consequent change of state. The train is arriving at platform four. TÁBLÁZAT

22. PERFECTIVE AND PROGRESSIVE ASPECTS III.

Progressive aspect in relation to tense: It has the effect of surrounding a particular event or point of time with a temporal frame. a point in the flow of time from where the event is seen to stretch to the future and past. When the eight o'clock news comes on, I am already travelling to work. The temporal frame can be implied by reference to a past time of orientation. A moment later, we were hurrying for shelter beneath the trees. The relationship betwe a past progressive and simple past is of time inclusion: made coffee, was making coffee when we arrived. The temporal frame is notimportant.

Other uses of the progressive aspect: May be used to refer to future or future in the past. Are you going to the meeting. They were getting married the following spring. May be used with attitudinal past tense or present: I am hoping to borrow some money. or I was wondering if you could....
Or can be used following the auxiliary WILL or SHALL that suggests that the matter will defenately take place. I'll be seeing you next week.

Perfective progressive: when perf. and progr. are combined (has been working) their other features also combine. Progressive has three features: DURATION, LIMITATION OF DURATION, and POSSIBLE INCOMPETENESS. The firs two gives the perfective progressive a sense of temporariness. I have been writing a letter to... This is a temporary situation leading up to the present. A state leading up to the present is simple perfect. The limitation of duration is weak in the case of LIVE,STAND,LIE. The use of punctual verbs is in most cases unacceptable with perfective progressive. He has been starting the book. which is wrong because it has no duration to start a book. The incompleteness feature becomes clear in the next two sent.: I have cleaned/have been cleaning the window. The use of simple perfective is wrong with accomplishment verbs when the clause contains an adverbial of duration. So ve say They have been repairing the road for months. But where the duration adverbial refers to the resultant state or where the clause is negative we may say: They havent repaired the roads for years. If a conclusive verb is not accompanied by a verb of duration it implies that the effects of the happening are still visible. You have been fighting again
The main uses of perfective progr. are as follows: The happening has limited duration/continues up to the present/need not be complete/may have effects which are still apparent.
We use present perf. progr. when temporay habit up to the present. Implies that it may continue into the future. The meaning of the perfective progr. may combine with those of the past tense and of the modal verbs.
23 SOME MEANS OF EXPESSING FUTURE TIME:

Will/Shall + infinitive: This is the most common way of expressing future. The modal verb will is used with subjects of all three persons. Shall is used to indicate futurity but only with a first person subject:
No doubt I shall see you next week. The use of will can be in predictive aspect: You'll feel better if..
Will and shall especially in first and second person expresses intention: How soon will you anounce that.
Be going to + infinitive: Especially in informal speech. Its general meaning is future fulfillment of the present intention. It is used with personal subjects and agentive verbs: When are you going to get married. The other meaning is future result of present cause is used with both personal and nonpersonal subjects: It's going to rain. Going to is not normaly used in conditional or in superordinate clause.

Present progressive: Future arising from present arrangement, plan or programme: I am taking the children to the zoo.( on Monday). We do not use certain stative verbs in progressive such as BE.
The present p. suggests that the future happening is imminent(közelgő): I am leaving
Simple present: Another common use of future meaning. Mostly in dependent clauses, where it is regularly used after conditional and temporal conjunctions such as if and when and in some that cclauses. What will you say if I marry the boss. In main clauses, the future use the simple present may be said to represent a marked future of unusual definiteness. Can be used for statements about the calendar:School finishes on the 21st of March. Also describes immutable events: When is high tide. It is used with dynamic transitional verbs: arrive,come,leave. Having the meaning of plan or programme: The plane takes off at 20:30 tonight.
Will/Shall + progressive infinitive: Reference to the future time with temporal frame. When you reach the end of the bridge I'll be waiting there to show you the way. There is a separate use of WILL + progressive to denote future as a matter of course: We'll be flying at 30000 feet. but We'll fly at 30000 feet means that the pilot decided so. Can be a more polite way do express demand. We can use both prograssive and nonprogressive in cases where there is no human involvement: The next train to London will arrive/be arriving at platform four.

Concluding comments on constructions expressing future time: There are othe quasi-auxiliary constructions (be to + infinitive or be about to + infinitive. Their daughter is to be married soon .(future arrangement or plan) The train is about to leave .(expresses near future). We may add JUST to strenghten its closeness. May or must with a dynamic verb can locate the event in future. The weather may improve. Or with be sure, be bound to. Will is usually preferred to be going to in formal style. Be going to tends not to be repeated in a text referring pervasively to the future.Tomorrow is going to be a cold day. There will be snow....

Future time in past: Most future constructions can be used in the past tense to describe something which is in the future when seen from viewpoint in the past. 1. Modal verb construction with would. It is rare literary narrative style: The time was not far off when he would regret this decision. Be going to + infinitive: (with a sense of unfulfilled intention) You were going to give me your address.
Past progressive: (arrangement predetermined in the past) I was meeting him in Bordeaux nex day.
Be to + infinitive: (formal) be destined to or arrangement: He was to eventually end up there. and
He was to leave.. Be about to + infinitive:(often with the sense of unfulfilled intention) He was about to hit me.

24 MEANINGS OF THE MODAL VERBS I :

Modality is the manner in which the meaning of a clause is qualified so as to reflect the speakers judgement of the likeelihood of the proposition it expresses being true. There are constraining factors of meaning which can be divided into two types: 1. Those such as permission, obligation, and volition which involve some kind of intristic human control over events. 2. Those such as possibility , necessity, and prediction, which do not primarily involve human control of events but judgement of what is or is not likely to happen. 1: INTRINSIC 2: EXTRINSIC uses of modal verbs. Each one of the modals has both the intrinsic and the extrinsic uses: May has the meaning of permission(intrinsic) and possibility(extrinsic) For inst. SHOULD and WOULD is interchangeable in the meaning obligation and tentative inference.
1. Certain modals such as CAN and WILL are extremely common, but others such as should and ought to are rare. 2. Most of them have the past form as well, but in terms of meaning, their past form does not always stand for the past.(can/could) 3. Their use differ in BrE and AmE. For inst. the use of those above mentioned rare modals are rarer in AmE.

Can/could: Three major meaning of the modals can be distinguished. 1. Possibility: mostly in questions and negatives: Even expert drivers can make mistakes. In this case CAN is paraphrasable by IT IS POSSIBLE followed by an infinitive clause. Sometimes can indicates a future possibility.
2. Ability: Can you remember. Can be paraphrased by BE ABLE TO or BE CAPABLE OF. or be possible for me to... can/could is due to some skill or capability on the part of the subject referent.
3. Permission: In these cases can is less formal than may. Can we borrow or Are we allowed to borrow.

May/might: 1. Possibility: You may be right. It is different from the possibility sense of CAN. To paraphrase we use IT IS POSSIBLE followed by a that clause or we simply use (it may be that or perhaps) This meaning of MAY is termed Epistemic Possibility: it denotes the possibility of a given proposition's being or becoming true. Might can be used as an alternetive to may. Might is more tentative. It is often preferred to may as a modal of epistemic possibility. When may/might is used in the same possibility sense as can/could than it is a sense of Root possibility: During the autumn, many rare birds may be observed. Here may is a more formal substitute for can. 2. Permission:
You may borrow my bicycle. As a permission auxiliary may is more formal and less common than can.
May is associated with permission given by the speaker.

In interogatives and in auxiliary negation may in the sense of epistemic possibility is normally replaced by can. She may not be serious/She cant be serious. There are rare use of may with subject -operator inversion in volitional sentences. May the best man win=Let the best man win.
In subordinate clauses of concession or purpose:Strange as it may seem. (this is formal and has an archaic sense. Use of may in concessive adverbial clauses: We may have our differences from time to time, but we trust eachother. Idiomatic expression may/might as well. is to make reluctant or sardonic(erőltetett) recommendation: You may as well stay here.

25. MEANINGS OF THE MODAL VERBS II

Must : Can express necessity: There must be some mistake. The speaker judges the proposition to be necessarily true. The speaker drawn conclusions from things already known. There is also a root necessity meaning of must: To be healthy, a plant must receive moisture and sunshine. where must has a meaning of essentiality. Obligation or complusion: You must be back by ten o'clock. The speaker is advocating a certain form of behaviour. The speaker is exercising his authority. Exception when the subject is in first person. I must remember to write. The speaker in this case exercises authority over himself. Ocassionaly must occurs with negations. His absence must not have been noticed. The occurence is rare in questions. Must there be a good reason for.... This assumes a positive answer. Some case MUST has sarcastic use with a 2nd person subject: If you must smoke, at least....

Need, have(got) to: Need is used as the negative and question form of must in root senses: Need they make all that noise. Have(got) to can also be substituted for must with little or no difference in meaning. In the case of logical necessity have(got) to is more emphatic than must and used mostly in AmE. In the obligation sense have(got) to is felt more impersonal than must. It is noticable with a firs person subject: I'm afraid I have to go now. Where must implies self obligation, have(got) to implies obligation by external forces. Since must has no past and nonfinite form, have to in many contexts where must is impossible.(when following a modal verb: We'll have to be patient.)

Ought to and should: Where they contrast with must and have to is that they are not expressing the speakers confidence in the occurance of the event or state described. There is tentative interference where the speaker is not sure about that his statement is true but tentatively concludes that it is true on the basis that he knows. Should and ought to differ from must in that they frequently refer to the future. The job should be finished by next Monday.
Obligation: Ought and should do not imply that the speaker has confidence that the recommendation will be carried out. In the perfective aspect they have the meaning that the recommendation has not been carried out. They should have met her at the station.

Will/would: Where shall end should is not interchangeable with will and would the contraction( 'll 'd) does not substitute for shall and should though it can for will and would. When in the predictive sense the change to shall is not possible then the contraction to 'll is possible.
Prediction: There are three related uses: 1. The common future predictive sense of will and the prediction in the past sense of would: I was told I would feel better after this medicine. 2. The present predictive sense of will which is rare and is similar in meaning to must in logical necessity sense: She will have had her dinner by now. 3. The habitual predictive meaning often occurs in conditionals:
If you eat salty you will get thirsty. Or it occurs in descriptions of personal habit or behaviour.
He'll talk for hours if you let him. In past tense narratives would can describe habitual behaviour:
In the spring the birds would return to their old haunts.
Volition: 1. Intention: I will write as soon as I can. 2. Willingness: Will you help me to..
3. Insistence: If you will go out without your overcoat, what can you expect.

26. MEANINGS OF MODAL VERBS III.

Shall: It is becoming rarer and rarer. 1. We use it for prediction with first person subject. Shall is substitute for the future use of will in formal style. In old english the future auxiliary with WE and I should be should, but its old fashioned. 2. Volition: With first person subjects. In the intentional sense shall is a formal alternative to will after I or we. In questions containing shall I SHALL consults the wishes of the addresse thus moves towards an obligational meaning. It is used for making offers: Shall we deliver the goods to your home. And we use it to make suggestions about shared activities.
What shall we do this evening. Shall we go to... Also used in tag questions. Its use is restricted with 2nd and third person subjects. It can have the meaning of must in case of obligations.

The past tense forms of the modals: could, might, wold and should:

Past time in indirect speech: In indirect speech the past time modals are used. They can express
permission,ability,possibility,prediction,volition, can be used in offers.
Past time in other constructions: Can and could act as the past equivalent of can and will. But might and should do not act as the past equivalent of may and shall. Can-Could: permission We could do whatever we wanted, possibility Could be dangerous, ability Could speak language. Will-Would: prediction Later he would learn his error.,habitual prediction She would sit there continously.,willingness No one would do that. insistence He would leave the house in a muddle.
Outside indirect speech would is not used in the same sense of intention. There is a rare and archaic use of might outside indirect speech in the sense permitted to We might leave the school only at weekends. Could and would may refer to habitual fulfilment. In implying fulfilment was able to is used and not could. I ran after the bus and was able to catch it.

Hypothetical meaning: Past tense modals can be used in the hypothetical or unreal sense of the past tense. If you could win the game you might ..... refers for future but for past hypothetical we must add perfective aspect. All past tense modals can be used in this way to express the hypothetical version of meanings such as ability, possibility, permission, prediction, and volition. Could and might + perfective are used in complaints: You could have warned me she was coming.

Tentativeness or politeness: could might and would: Tentative permission in polite requests:
Could I see your driving licence. Tentative volition in polite requ.: Would you lend.. Tentative possibility in expressing tentative opinion: There could be something wrong. and in polite directives and requests: Could you please open the door. Apart from the last could and might have the same meaning.

Mood markers: Would and should: Used as a marker of mood. A marker of hypothetical meaning:
If you press that button, the engine would stop. There are other cases: I would hate to loose this pen.
Should as a marker of putative meaning: (vélt): In this use should + infinitive is often equivalent to the mandative subjunctive. She insisted that we should stay .
The modals with the perfective and progressive aspects: These are excluded when the modals express ability or permission or when shall or will expresses volition. These aspects are used :
Possibility: He might have missed the.. Necessity: You must be dreaming. Prediction: He will still be reading. Obligation can only be expressed with the perfective or progressive when combined with should or ought to. I ought to be working now. This implies nonfulfilment. Perfective progressive with modals is also possible: You must have been dreaming.

The meaning of marginal auxiliaries: Táblázat.

27 NEGATION

There are three types: 1. Clause negation where the whole clause is treated as negative. 2. Local negation where one constituent is negated. 3. Predication negation: only after certain auxiliaries in which the predication is negated.

Clause negation: Through verb negation. A simple positive sentence is negated by placing the clause negator NOT between the operator and the predication. The operator here is the firs auxiliary verb of a complex verb phrase or either BE or stative HAVE as the verb in a simple verb phrase.
If an operator is not present in the positive sentence the dummy auxiliary DO is introduced. Negation except in formal E. may occur with the contracted form n't. If we emphasize we use the whole negator.
The dynamic main verb have requires DO as an operator. We didn't have a party. If the verb is subjunctive, the negator is positioned immediately before the verb but without an operator: I requested that they not interrupt me.

Contracted forms of negator and auxiliaries: There is a negator and an auxiliary contraction:
We aren't ready, We're not ready.

Syntactic features of clause negation: These differentiate negative from positive clauses:
1. They are followed by positive checking tag questions. She doesn't work hard, does she.
2. They are followed by negative tag clauses with additive meaning: I havent finished, nor have you.
3. In discourse, they are followed by negative agreement responses. 4. They are followed by nonassertive items: He wont notice any change in you. She wont either. 5. They do not coocure with items that have positive orientation. It isn't pretty late. which is wrong.

Clause negation other than through verb negation: Words negative in form and meaning.
Clausal negation : we negate a clause element other than the verb with no or not, or by using a negative word such as none or never. There is verb negation That was not an accident. and negation of other element: That was no accident If the negated subject is not generic there is no corresponding negation with the operator. Not one guest arrived late. Where negation with an operator is also possible, it has a different meaning because the scope of negation is different.
Many people did not come and Not many people came In formal style the negative element may be moved out into an initial position: Not a word would he say. This is a clausal negation. This requires the positive tag question an nonassertive. Negation with no can have different implications than verb negation with not. He is not a teacher and He is no teacher. The determiner no converts the usually nongradable noun into a gradable noun that characterizes a person I am not a youngster and I am no youngster( I am quite old) In most cases the verb no modifies adjectives only when they are comparatives (no worse) There is no inversion with negative conjuncts and disjunts.

Words negative in meaning but not in form: They are seldom, rarely, scarely,hardly etc.
These can effect clause negation, and require positive tag question. The adverbs normally cause subject-operator inversion when they are positioned initially as adverbials or as modifiers within an adverbial in literary an oratorical style. Rarely does cryme pay so well as many people think.
The adverbs scarely barely hardly function within a noun phrase subject, effecting clause negation.
Scarely any wine has yet arrived, has it. When ONLY focuses on a subject noun phrase the latter is followed by nonassertive items. Only two of us had any experience in sailing. But it may take subject operator inversion when it focuses on a fronted initial element other than the subject. Only his mother will he obey. Verbs adjectives and prepositions with nehative meaning may be followed by nonassertive items (ANY ) : I forgot to ask for any change. Nonassertive items also follow implied negation: Take it before he says anything. RARELY can be positive. (Rarely crime pays well)
28 THE VERB PHRASE IN SUBORDINATE CLAUSES:

Tenses, aspects and modal auxiliaries apply both subordinate and independent clauses. But there are cases in which choices affecting the verb phrase of a subordinate clause. With temporal since clauses it is the choice of verb phrase in the matrix clause that is affected. Subordinate clause prevents that clause from constituting in an independent sentence.

The present tense adverbial and nominal clauses: The simple present is commonly used in preference to the auxiliary will or shall in certain types of adverbial clauses to express future meaning:
When he arrives the band will play the National Anthem. The subordinators belong to the temporal, conditional, and conditional connessive categories. SINCE is excluded. Clauses of similarity and proportion can also have the simple pres. to express future meaning. Next time I'll do as she says.
Nominal that and wh-clauses contain simple pres. when the matrix clause refers to the future. That is what he will want tomorrow. There are exceptions after which the simple present is regularly used: hope, bet see, take care, suppose and assume. Suppose he loses his way. Will and won't can occur in adverbial, if clauses. The simple present refers to an assumed future actual situation. Modals refer to the assumed predictability of a situation. Will and wont are commonly used 1. where modals have volitional meaning: If you'll use it, you can have it. Here simple present would suppress the volitional meaning. 2. Where the modals express timeless and habitual prediction: If drugs will cure him, this drug will do the job. 3. Modals express the present predictability of the occurence or nonoccurence of a future situation: If you wont arrive before six, I cant meet you. Matrix clause expresses the present consequence of the present predictability. Modals can be replaced by the simple present but with a different implication.

The hypothetical past and the past perfective: The verbs in hypothetical clauses are backshifted,
the past tense form form being used for present and future time reference and the past perf. for past time reference. Hypothetical past and perfective. The most commonly used modal in the matrix clause is WOULD. It expresses the hypothetical implication. The hypothetical meaning is more absolute in the past with present and future reference the meaning can be negative expectation or assumption. Modals in hypothetical conditional clauses combine with past and past perf. In the matrix clause they raplace WOULD. Modals in hypo. conditions apart from the hyp. would are could, would, might should. If they would help us we could finish early. In certain other constructions that have hypo. meaning hypo. past or past perf. are obligatory. It's time you were in bed. Can express negative implication or hypo. past may express tentative politeness.I'd rather we had dinner now.

The present and past subjunctive: Used very occasionally in formal style, open conditional clauses, and in concessive clauses. If any person be found guilty, he shall have the right of appeal. More usually the simple pres. indicative is used. Clauses of concession and purpose express putative rather than factual meaning: Though he be the president himself, he shall hear us. More usual for the though clause are the simple pres. indicative or putaive should followed by the infinitive. In that clauses after verbs, adjectives, the present subjunctive is used. Congress has voted that the present law be maintained. Mandative subjunctive is used when the matrix verb is past. Putative SHOULD with the infinitive is far more common. The past subjunctive is used in formal style in hypo. conditional clauses and in other constructions with hypo. meaning. I wish she were not married. In formal style we use WERE.

Putative should: Used in that clauses to convey the notion of a putative situation which is recognized as possibly existing or coming into existence. Nonfactuality. The should construction has nonfactual bias. In that clauses when the matrix contain verbs adjectives or nouns that convey an emotional reaction or that express a necessity, plan, or intention for the future we use putative SHOULD. It is replaceable by infinitive clauses or present subjunctive. A past verb in the matrix clause do not necessarily affect the form of should in the subordinate clause.

The perfective with temporal clauses: With temporal since clauses: The temporal since clause generally requires the present perf. in the matrix clause when we refer to the stretch of time up to the present.: I have lost ten ponds since I started swimming. When the clause contains a prepositional phrase introduced by since or the prepositional adverb since. In informal lang. nonperfective forms are commonly used in matrix clauses with since clauses. There are some exceptions to the general rule for matrix clauses. In most cases both perf and nonperf forms are possible.
1. When the predication is durative statively used verbs (be,seem) may take nonperf forms. It's Ok since I had it fixed. The most common pattern is IT+BE+ a time expression in which the verb is in simpl past, or simpl. pres. or have the will future. Nonperfective forms are normal here. Other verbs (seem) also fit into this pattern. It seems a long time since we last met. Perfective forms may also be used. 2. Modal auxiliaries (can,could) or semi-aux. occur in the matrix clause in nonperfective forms. Modals can not be used here in perfective forms. Perfective modals may be used when the matrix clause refers to a situation in the past. 3. The simple present or the pres. progr. is sometimes used in the matrix clause when that clause has habitual reference. When the whole period under consideration is distanced in past time, the past. perf. is generally used in the matrix clause. The past perfective may be replaced py the simple past. A past modal perfective is used in the matrix clause when the period in time matrix clause refers to a future time in the past. Since clause: Simple past is used when the clause refers to a point of time, marking the begining of a situation, referred to in the matrix clause. Present perfective is used when the clause refers to a period of time lasting to the present. Pres. perf. may also be used in the pattern it+be+time expression, when there is no explicit indication of point of time. When the period is placed in past time the past perf. or the simple past is used.

The perfective with other temporal clauses: When an after clause refers to a past event the varb may be in the past perf. or in simple past. In case of when it is the same. WHEN suggests that one action follows immediately the other. If the sequence of events is habitual the werb in aft or when clause may be in the pres. perf. Also when there is a repetitiveness of the situation and in temporal and conditional clauses for a future event that precedes the future event referred to in the matrix clause. In case of before we use past perf. Nonfactual. The event in a before clause may not have taken place.

29. REPORTING THE LANGUAGE OF OTHERS:

The clearest modes in which language may be reported are introduced by a reporting clause. 1. Referring to the speaker and the act of communication. 2. And can refer to the person spoken to. 3. The manner of speaking. 4. The circumstances of the act.

1. Primary modes of reporting: direct and indirect speech when a reporting clause introduces the report. (refers to the utterance itself) 2. Secondary modes related to the prim. modes of reporting are free indirect speech and direct speech. In sec. modes there is no reporting clause, the act of communication is signalled by shifts in the tense form of verbs. 3. The report can be representation of mental act. (internal communication) which is unspoken. Should I tell them now I thought to myself.

Ditrect speech: Gives the exact words of sy. They are enclosed in quotation marks. The medial position of reporting clause is frequent. Subject verb inversionmay occur if the verb is in the simp. present or in the simp. past. Inversion is most common when the verb is SAID. The subject of a reporting clause should not be pronoun. It sounds archaic. D. S. may extend over many sentence. The rep. clause in this case is in the first sentence. Reported clauses are omitted in fiction writing when the identity of the speaker is obvious, or in playsn in formal reports.
The structural relation between the reporting and direct speech: 1. Direct speech responses to a what question. 2. We can make it the subject complement in pseudo-cleft constructions. 3.The reporting clause is is an obligatory part of the firs clause in that coordination would otherwise not be possible. 4. Reporting clause as subordinate function as an adverbial. Can be positioned variously and can be omitted. 5. The direct speech clause behaves like a main clause in that it can for example be a question or a directive. The reporting clause behaves likewise. 6. Subject and verb are separated from the object by a comma. Gradient: How much is the direct speech inegrated into the structure. Extreme: direct speech without a reporting clause. 7. Reportng verbs with say: add, admit, announce, explain. The ones indicating the manner of speaking: murmur, mutter.

Indirect speech: Conveys the words of a subsequent reporter, what has been said before. These form a that clause. Reporting verbs that are used with indirect speech include those that are frequently used with direct speech. Verbs of speaking and thinking. A reporter usin indirect speech may summarize. Changes in wording becouse of the situation. Tense form of the verb, time references, place references, personal pronouns, demonstratives.

Backshift in indirect speech: The reporting verb may be in the present tense for communications for recent past time. The present tense is also used for report attributed to famous works or authors, which have present validity. The choice of verb form in the reported clause depends on the time reference of the verb. Verbs of cognition may also be used in the present tense. When the time reference is of the original utterance no longer applies at the time that the uttereance is reported it is often necessary to change the tense forms of the verbs. Such a change of verb forms in indirect speech is named backshift. The resulting relationship of verb forms in the reporting and reported clauses is known as the sequence of tenses. Present-past, Past-past or past perfective, Present perfective and past perfective-past perfective. Backshift is optional when the time reference of the original utterance is valid at the time of the reported utterance. The appropriateness of the present forms depends on their reference at the time of the reported utterance. If a long time had elapsed between the original utterance reported or there was doubt as to as to its present validity, the past perfective would be used. Backshift is normal if the proposition in the indirect speech is considered to be false.

30. REPORTING THE LANGUAGE OF OTHERS:

If the identity of the speaker and the person addressed are not the same as in the situation of the original utterance, the personal pronouns need to be changed. Pronoun shift requires the shift of 1st and 2nd person pronouns to 3rd person pronouns or to nouns, when the person referred to in the original utterance are absent in the reported utterance. 1st an 2nd person pronouns are used as appropriate to the reporting situation. If the relation between the the original and the reported utterance has changed it is necessary to make adjustments. Place references change or be cpecified by name. If the relative distancing has changed, the demonstratives also change.

Indirect statements, questions, exclamations, and directives: Indirect statement: that clause,
indirect question: dependent wh-clause, indirect exclamations: dependent wh-clause. indirect directives: that clause and to-infinitive clause. With directives there is no tense backshift in the verb forms: mandative, subjunctive, putative should and to-infinitive. If to-infinitive construction is used for an indirect directive, the reporting clause normaly requires an indirect object or a prepositional object.

The subjunctive an modal auxiliaries in indirect speech: There is no indirect speech construction for the optative subjunctive, but when it is used to express a wish the construction with may is sometimes a near equivalent. There is no backshift for the mandative subjunctive. The past subjunctive or hypoth. past is backshifted to hypothetical past perfective if there is a change in time reference. Backshift is optionall if the proposition in the indirect speech is still valid. If there is a change in time reference, a modal auxiliary is backshifted from present tense forms to past tense forms. If a modal auxiliary in the direct speech. is already in the past tense form, then the same form remains in the indirect speech. Several modal auxiliaries or marginal modals have only one form (must). This form remains in indirect speech. But in this case it can be replaced by had to. If the proposition in the indirect speech is valid at the time of utterance the backshift is optional.

Free indirect and direct speech: Used to report speech or the stream of thought. The reporting clause is omitted. The potantialities of direct speech sentence structure are retained. It is only the backshift of the verb, with equivalent shifts in personal pronouns, and time and place referencesthat signals the fact thjat the words are being reported. In the case of free direct speech it is used in fiction writing to represent a persons stream of thought. It is a form of direct speech but it is merged with the narration without any overt indication by a reporting clause of a switch to speech. Its distinguished form is the past time reference of the narration by its use of present tense forms.

Transferred negation: It is the transfer of the negative form a subordinate clause where semantically it belongs to the matrix clause. I dont think its a good idea can have two meanings: negation applies to the matrix or to the subordinate clause. The matrix verbs that allow transfered negation fall into several semantic groups: Opinion(anticipate, Perception(appear), Intuition may differ whether 2 sentences are synonymous. Lack of synonymy becomes evident if the adjective is intensified. Not all verbs in the same semantic field allow transfered negation(assume). Addition of modal auxiliaries in the matrix clause may prevent transfered negation with verbs that otherwise allow it.


31. COMPLEMENTATION OF VERBS I

Multi word verbs: Phrasal verb, prepositional verb, ph.-prepositional verb. Only considered multy word verbs where they behave as single unit. Verb is a unit which behave either lexicaly or syntactically. Particle is what follows the verb. Prepositions: against, among,as... Either prepositions or spatial verbs: about, above, across. Spatials only: aback, ahead.. The most obvious difference between the prepositions and the spatial adverbs is that where prepositions require a following noun phrase as a prepositional complement, there is no such requirement for adverbs.

Types: 1. Intransitive phrasal verbs. Intransitive phrasal verb consisting of a verb plus an adverb particle. These are usually informal. The particle functions like a prediction adjunct and usually cannot be separated from its lexical verb. In phrasal verbs the meaning of the combination manifestly cannot be predicted from the meanings of verb and particle in isolation, but in free combinations the verb acts as a normal intransitive verb, and the adverb has its own meaning. The separability of verb and adverb in terms of meaning is shown by possible substitutions. There are also syntactic signs of cohesion. In free combinations it is often possible to place a modifying adverb (right) between the adverb particle and the verb. This insertion is to differing extents unacceptable with phrasal verbs. Another sign of free combination is the possibility of placing the adverb before the verb with subject-verb inversion. (Out came the sun). But with phrasal verbs it is not possible. Where the phrasal verb makes metaphorical use of spatial adverbs inversion seems acceptable.

Type 2: Many phrasal verbs may take a direct object an can be described as transitive. With most type2 phrasal verbs the particle can either precede or follow the direct object. The particle tends to precede the object if the object is long, or if the intention is that the object should receive end-focus.
There is no sensitive method of testin cohesion by placing the particle before the subject as this position is not possible. Like transitive verbs in general type2 phrasal verbs can normaly be turned into the passive without stylistic awkwardness. The particle cannot normaly be placed after a clausal object.